UNIT 3

Z- Transform and its implementation

 Overview

• Z Transform
• Properties of z-transform
• Transfer Function
• Transfer Function & Difference Equation
• Transfer Function & Impulse Response
• Inverse Z Transform
• Transfer Function & System Stability
• Difference Equation & System Stability
• Impulse & Step Responses
• Steady State Output
 Z Transform
• The z transform is an important digital signal processing tool
for describing and analyzing digital systems.

• It also supports the techniques for digital filter design and

frequency analysis of digital signals.

• It takes a signal from the time domain to a frequency domain

called the z domain.

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 Z Transform
• The z transform for a digital signal x[n] is defined as

where z is the complex variable.

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 Z Transform
• The z transform for causal signals is

It is referred to as a one-sided z-transform or a unilateral transform.

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 Z Transform Table

 # Signal x[n] Z Transform X(z) Region of Convergence

1 [n] 1 All z
2 u[n] Z/(Z-1) Z> 1
3 nu[n] Z/(Z-) Z> 
4 nu[n] Z/(Z-1)2 Z> 1
5 nn u[n] Z-1/(1-Z-1)2 Z> 
6 Cos(nΩ)u[n] ZsinΩ/(Z2 - 2zcosΩ + β) Z> 1

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Z Transform Table

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 Region of Convergence (ROC)
• The z transform for every signal has an associated Region of
Convergence (ROC), the region of the z domain for which the
transform exists.

• Since the z-transform is an infinite series, it exists only for

those values of z for which this series converges.

• All the values of z that make the summation exist form a

Region of Convergence (ROC) in the z-transform domain.

• While all other values of z outside the ROC will cause the
summation to diverge.
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 Z Transform
Example-1: Determine the z-transform of the following signals.

a) x[n] = δ[n]

solution

ROC: entier 𝑧 plane

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 Z Transform
Example-1: Determine the z-transform of the following signals.

b) x[n] = δ[n-1]

solution

ROC: entire 𝑧 plane except z = 0.

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 Z Transform
Example-1: Determine the z-transform of the following signals.
c) x[n] = u[n]

Solution

+……

• This is a geometric series of the form a+ ar + ar2 +…. With initial

term a equal to 1 and multiplier r equal to z-1.
• The sum of infinite geometric series is
• So X(z)

ROC: 11
 Z Transform
Example-1: Determine the z-transform of the following signals.

d) x[n] = u[n-1]

Solution

ROC:

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 Z Transform
Example-1: Determine the z-transform of the following signals.

e)

Solution

x[n] = δ[n] + 2δ[n-1] + 5δ[n-2] + 7δ[n-3] + δ[n-5]

ROC: entire 𝑧 plane except 𝑧 = 0 and z =

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 Z Transform
Example-1: Determine the z-transform of the following signals.

f)

Solution

x[n] = δ[n+2] + 2δ[n+1] + 5δ[n] + 7δ[n-1] + δ[n-3]

ROC: entire 𝑧 plane except 𝑧=0

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 Z Transform
Example-1: Determine the z-transform of the following signals.
g) x[n] = anu[n]

Solution

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 Z Transform
Example-1: Determine the z-transform of the following signals.

h) x[n] = (-0.5)nu[n]

Solution

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 Z Transform
Example-2: Find the z transform of the signal x[n] depicted in
the figure.

Solution
The signal x[n] is described as:
x[n] = 2δ[n] + δ[n-1] + 0.5δ[n-2]

The z transform of the signal is

•

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Properties of z-transform
Linearity

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 Properties of z-transform
Linearity
Example-3: Find the z-transform of the sequence defined by

Solution
Applying the linearity of the z-transform, we have

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 Properties of z-transform
Linearity
Example-4: Find the z-transform of the sequence defined by

Solution
Applying the linearity of the z-transform, we have

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 Properties of z-transform
Linearity
Example-5: Find the z-transform of the signal x[n] defined by

Solution

Applying the linearity of the z-transform, we have

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 Properties of z-transform

Time Shifting/Shift Theorem

• A one-sample delay in the time domain appears in the z

domain as a z-1 factor. That is,

Z{x[n-1]} = z-1X(z)

More generally,
Z{x[n-k]} = z-kX(z) 22
Properties of z-transform

Time Shifting/Shift Theorem

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Properties of z-transform

Time Shifting/Shift Theorem

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 Properties of z-transform
Time Shifting/Shift Theorem
Example-6: Find the z-transform of the signal x[n] defined by

Solution

Applying the time shifting property of the z-transform, we have

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Properties of z-transform
Time Reversal

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 Properties of z-transform
Time Reversal

Example-7: Find the z-transform of the signal x[n] = u[-n]

Solution

Applying the time reversal theorem of the z-transform, we have

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 Properties of z-transform
Convolution

Convolution in time domain is equal to the multiplication in

frequency domain and vice versa.

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 Properties of z-transform
Convolution

Proof:

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 Properties of z-transform
Convolution
Example-8: Consider the two sequences

• Find the Z transform of convolution

• Determine the convolution sum using the z-transform.

Solution

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 Properties of z-transform
Convolution
Example-9: Compute the convolution of the following signals
using z transform

Solution

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Properties of z-transform

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Difference Equation Diagram using z–1 Notation

• Time shifting property of the z transform suggests a notation

change for difference equation diagram.

• The delay blocks can be replaced by z-1 bocks.

• This convention mixes the time and z domain notations.

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Difference Equation Diagram using z–1 Notation

• The general form of the non-recursive difference equation is

y[n] = b0x[n] + b1x[n-1] + b2x[n-2] + … + bMx[n-M]
• Re-expressing the non-recursive difference equation diagram
using the z-1 notation.

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Transfer Function

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 Transfer Function
• In the z domain, the transfer function of a filter can be
defined.
• The transfer function is the ratio of the output to the input in
the z domain:

In this equation
Y(z) is the z transform of the output y[n]
X(z) is the z transform of the input x[n]
H(z) is the transfer function of the filter 

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 Transfer Function & Difference Equation

• The general form of a difference equation is

a0y[n] + a1y[n-1] + a2y[n-2] + … + aNy[n-N]

                                   = b0x[n] + b1x[n-1] + b2x[n-2] + … + bMx[n-M]

Taking the z transform of the above equation

a0Y(z)+ a1z-1Y(z)+ a2z-2Y(z) + … + aNz-NY(z)
                                   = b0X(z) + b1z-1X(z) + b2z-2X(z) + … + bMz-MX(z)

Taking Y(Z) and X(Z) common and then cross multiply to get TF.

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 Transfer Function & Difference Equation

Example-10: Find the transfer function described by the

difference equation.
2y[n] + y[n-1] + 0.9y[n-2] = x[n-1] + x[n-4]

Solution: Taking z transforms term by term we get,

2Y(z) + z-1Y(z) + 0.9z-2Y(z) = z-1X(z) + z-4X(z)

Factoring out Y(z) on the left side and X(z) on the right side:
(2 + z-1 + 0.9z-2)Y(z) = (z-1 + z-4)X(z)

The transfer function (TF) is

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 Transfer Function & Difference Equation

Example-11: Find the transfer function described by the

difference equation.
y[n] – 0.2y[n-1] = x[n] + 0.8x[n-1]

Solution: Taking z transforms term by term we get,

Y(z) – 0.2z-1Y(z) = X(z) + 0.8z-1X(z)

Factoring out Y(z) on the left side and X(z) on the right side:
(1 – 0.2z-1)Y(z) = (1 + 0.8z-1)X(z)

The transfer function (TF) is

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 Transfer Function & Difference Equation

Example-12: Find the transfer function described by the

difference equation.
y[n] = 0.75x[n] - 0.3x[n-2] – 0.01x[n-3]

Solution: Taking z transforms term by term we get,

Y(z) = 0.75X(z) - 0.3z-2X(z) – 0.01z-3X(z)

Factoring out Y(z) on the left side and X(z) on the right side:
Y(z) = (0.75 - 0.3z-2 - 0.01z-3)X(z)

The transfer function (TF) is

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 Transfer Function & Difference Equation

Example-13: Find the difference equation that correspond to

transfer function.

Solution: Since H(z) = Y(z)/X(z), do the cross multiply to get

(1 – 0.5z-1)Y(z) = (1 + 0.5z-1)X(z)
then
Y(z) – 0.5z-1Y(z) = X(z) + 0.5z-1X(z)

Finally taking the inverse z transform term by term to get

y[n] – 0.5y[n-1] = x[n] + 0.5x[n-1]

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 Transfer Function & Difference Equation

Example-14: Find the difference equation that correspond to

transfer function.

Solution: Since H(z) = Y(z)/X(z), do the cross multiply to get

(1 – 0.2z-1 + 0.7z-2)Y(z) = (1 + 0.8z-1)X(z)

then
Y(z) – 0.5z-1Y(z) + 0.7z-2Y(z)= X(z) + 0.8z-1X(z)

Finally taking the inverse z transform term by term to get

y[n] – 0.2y[n-1] + 0.7y[n-2]= x[n] + 0.8x[n-1]

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 Transfer Function & Difference Equation

Example-15: Find the difference equation that correspond

to transfer function.

Solution:
Since H(z) = Y(z)/X(z), do the cross multiply to get
()Y(z) = (z)X(z)
Then 8z2Y(z) – 6zY(z) + y(z) = zX(z)
Finally taking the inverse z transform term by term to get
8y[n] – 6y[n-1] + y[n-2] = x[n-1]

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 Transfer Function & Impulse Response

• The relationship between the transfer function and the

impulse response of a system is also straightforward.

• the transfer function H(z) is the z transform of the impulse

response h[n].

• Similarly Impulse response h[n] is inverse z transform of the

transfer function H(z).

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 Transfer Function & Impulse Response

Example-16: Find the transfer function of the system whose

impulse response is
h[n] = δ[n] + 0.4 δ[n-1] + 0.2 δ[n-2] + 0.05 δ[n-3]

Solution
The transfer function H(z) of the system is the z transform of the
impulse response h[n]. Taking z transform term by term we get

H(z) = 1 + 0.4z-1 + 0.2z-2 + 0.05z-3

Note that we can also get the difference equation from the TF.
y[n] = x[n] + 0.4x[n-1] + 0.2x[n-2]+ 0.05x[n-3]
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System Outputs in Time & Z Domains

• The system output can be find using three different ways.

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 System Output using TF
• The definition of the transfer function (TF) provides a means
of calculating filter outputs. That is,

Y(z) = H(z)X(z)

• To determine the time domain output y[n], the inverse z

transform of Y(z) must be taken.

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Inverse Z Transform

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 Inverse Z Transform
• To convert a function in the z domain into a function in the
time domain requires an inverse z transform.

• This conversion is necessary, for example, to find the time

domain functions like

x[n] that correspond to the z transforms X(z)

y[n] that correspond to the z transforms Y(z)
h[n] impulse response from a transfer function H(z)

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 Inverse Z Transform
There are several ways of finding inverse z transforms:

A: Formal Method
• Contour Integration

B: Informal Methods
1- Inspection method using Z Transform Tables
2- Long Division (Synthetic Division or Power Series Expansion)
3- Partial Fraction Expansion

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 Inverse Z Transform
A: Formal Method
• Contour Integration:

where C represents a closed contour within the ROC of the z-

transform.

The most fundamental method for the inversion of z transform is

the general inversion method which is based on the Laurent
theorem.

The contour integral of the above equation can be evaluated using

the residue theorem.
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 Inspection Method using Z Transform Tables

Example-17: Find the x[n] that corresponds to the z transform

Solution
Using z transform table, the inverse z transform is

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 Inspection Method using Z Transform Tables

Example-18: Find the inverse z transform of the function

Using z transform table, the inverse z transform is

cosΩ = 0.9
Ω = cos-1(0.9) = 0.451

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 Long Division Method
ADVANTGES

• Relatively straight forward method

• Applicable to any rational function
• Can be use to convert improper rational function into proper
rational function

DISADVANTAGES

• Sometimes will run to infinity

• General close-form solution cannot be found
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Transfer Function & System Stability

• Transfer function can be expressed as a rational function consist

of numerator polynomial divided by denominator polynomial.

• The highest power in a polynomial is called its degree.

• In a proper rational function, the degree of the numerator is

less than or equal to the degree of the denominator.

• In a strictly proper rational function, the degree of the

numerator is less than or the degree of the denominator.

• In an improper rational function, the degree of the numerator is

greater than the degree of the denominator.
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Long Division Method

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 Long Division Method
Example-19: Using long division method, determine the inverse z-transform of

H(z) = 1 – 0.5z-1 - 0.6z-2 + 0.64z-3 + …

The inverse Z transform is h[n] = δ[n] – 0.5δ[n-1] – 0.6δ[n-2] + 0.64δ[n-3] + … 57
 Long Division Method
Example-20: Using long division method, determine the inverse z-transform of

X(z) = 5z-2 – z-3 + 0.2z-4 – 0.04z-5 + …

The inverse Z transform is x[n] = 5δ[n-2] – δ[n-3] + 0.2δ[n-4] – 0.04 δ[n-5] + … 58
 Long Division Method
Example-21: Using long division method, determine the inverse z-
transform of

Solution: First arranged in descending powers of Z

then dividing the numerator of 𝑋(𝑧) by its denominator we obtain

power series
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 Long Division Method

The inverse Z transform is x[n] = δ[n+2] + 3δ[n] + δ[n] + δ[n-2] + δ[n-3] + δ[n-4]60+ …
 Long Division Method
Example-22: Using long division method, determine the inverse z-
transform of

Solution: By dividing the numerator of 𝑋(𝑧) by its denominator we

obtain power series

Using z-transform table

or
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 Long Division Method
Example-23: Using long division method, determine the inverse z-
transform of

Solution: By dividing the numerator of 𝑋(𝑧) by its denominator we

obtain power series

Using z-transform table

or
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 Partial Fraction Method
ADVANTGES
• It decompose the higher order system into sum of lower order
system
• General close-form solution can be found

DISADVANTAGES
• Applicable to strictly proper rational function in standard form
• Getting complex by handling 3 different types of roots for a
polynomial function of z, i.e.,
1. Distinct Real Roots
2. Repeated Real Roots
3. Complex Conjugate Roots
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 Partial Fraction Method
Example-24: Using partial fraction method find the inverse z-
transform of the signal Y(z), if x[n] = u[n-1], h[n] = (-0.25)nu[n].
Solution
As we know that Y(z) = X(z)H(z)
where

So,

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 Partial Fraction Method

• The partial fraction expansion is

• The coefficient A and B can be found using the cover-up method.

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 Partial Fraction Method

• The portion inside the brackets has a inverse z transform is

0.2(-0.25)nu[n] + 0.8u[n]

• The z-1 term outside the brackets indicates a time shift by one step.

• Thus, the final inverse transform is

X[n] = 0.2(-0.25)n-1u[n-1] + 0.8u[n-1]

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 Partial Fraction Method
Example-25: Using partial fraction method find the inverse z-
transform of the signal

Solution

• The denominator of X(z) can be factored to give

5
X (z)=
𝑧 ( 𝑧+0.2)
• The partial fraction expansion is

• Thus, the final inverse transform is

X[n] = 25δ[n-1] – 25

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 Partial Fraction Method
Example-26: Using partial fraction method find the inverse z-
transform of the signal

Solution
• The denominator is already factored into simple factors. The partial fraction
expression of Y(z) has three terms, one for each of the roots in the
denominator;

• Covering up the z term in the denominator and evaluating Y(z) at z = 0,

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 Partial Fraction Method
• Covering up the (z - 1) term in the denominator and evaluating at t = 1,

• Covering up the (z - 0.6) term and evaluating at t = 0.6,

• Hence

• The inverse z transform using the Table is

y[n] =δ[n - 1] +(0.6)n-1 u[n - 1]

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 Partial Fraction Method
Example-27: Using partial fraction method find the impulse response
of the system

Solution
• Changing to standard from, the transfer function becomes;

• Its partial fraction expansion is

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 Partial Fraction Method

The portion within the brackets gives the inverse transform

4δ[n] - 4(-0.25)n u[n], so the final inverse transform is

h[n] = 4δ[n - 1] - 4(-0.25)n-1u[n - 1]

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 Partial Fraction Method
Example-28: Using partial fraction method find the inverse z-
transform of the signal

Solution
• The denominator of X(z) can be factored to give;

• Its partial fraction expansion is

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 Partial Fraction Method

The final inverse transform is

x[n] = 25δ[n - 1] - 25(-0.2)n-1u[n - 1]

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 Partial Fraction Method
Example-29: Using partial fraction method find the inverse z-
transform of the signal

Solution
• Eliminating the negative power of 𝑧 by multiplying the numerator and
denominator by 𝑧2 yields

• Dividing both sides by 𝑧 leads to

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 Partial Fraction Method
• Again, we write

• where A and B are constants found as

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 Partial Fraction Method
• Thus

• Multiplying 𝑧 on both sides gives

• From table of z-transform pairs

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 Partial Fraction Method
Example-30: Using partial fraction method find the inverse z-
transform of the signal

Solution
• Dividing both sides by 𝑧 leads to

• Using partial fraction method

• Multiplying 𝑧 on both sides gives

• From table of z-transform pairs

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 Partial Fraction Method
Example-31: Using partial fraction method find the inverse z-
transform of the signal

Solution
• Eliminating the negative power of 𝑧 by multiplying the numerator and
denominator by 𝑧3 yields

• Coefficient of highest power in denominator should be 1. Therefore

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 Partial Fraction Method
• Dividing both sides by 𝑧 leads to

• Using partial fraction method

• Multiplying 𝑧 on both sides gives

• From table of z-transform pairs

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System Stability

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Transfer Function & System Stability

• The poles and zeros of a system can be determined easily

from the system’s transfer function.

• The poles and zeros of a system can provide a great deal of

information about the behavior of the system.

• In a standard form, TF can be expressed as a rational function

consist of numerator polynomial divided by denominator
polynomial.

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Transfer Function & System Stability

• It is easiest to identify the poles and zeros if the rational

transfer function

is converted to the form

which has only positive exponents.

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Transfer Function & System Stability

The zeros or roots of the numerator polynomial are the zeros of

the system.

The roots of the denominator polynomial are the poles of the

system.

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Transfer Function & System Stability

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 Transfer Function & System Stability
• Poles are the values of 𝑧 that make the denominator of a transfer function
zero.

• Zeros are the values of 𝑧 that make the numerator of a transfer function
zero.

• Of the two, poles have the biggest effect on the behavior of a digital
system (digital filter).

• Zeros tend to modulate, to a greater or lesser degree depending on their

position relative to the poles.

• The poles of digital filter can be found if its transfer function is known.

• Both zeros and poles are in general complex numbers. 85

 Transfer Function & System Stability
• A very powerful tool for the digital system analysis and design is
a complex plane called z plane, on which poles and zeros of the
transfer function are plotted.
• On the z plane,
poles are plotted as crosses (X)
zeros are plotted as circles (O)
• A plot showing pole and zero locations is called a pole-zero plot.

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 Transfer Function & System Stability

Example-32: for a first order system the poles and zeros are

• Poles: at 𝑧 = -0.4
• Zeros: at 𝑧 = 0

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 Transfer Function & System Stability
• The position of the poles and zeros on the z plane can give
clue about the way a digital filter will behave.

• One reason the poles of a system are so useful is that they

determine whether or not the filter is stable.

• The system is stable as long as the poles lie inside the unit
circle, which is a circle of unit radius on the z plane.

• Since poles are complex numbers, this requires that their

magnitudes be less than one.

• Mathematically, the region of stability can be described as

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 Transfer Function & System Stability
• If the magnitude of each pole is less than one, the poles are
less than one unit’s distance from the center of the unit circle,
and the filter is stable.
• If any of the poles of a system lie outside the unit circle, the
filter is unstable.
• If the outermost pole lies on the unit circle, the filter is
described as being marginally stable.

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Transfer Function & System Stability

Example-33: Find the poles and zeros and stability for the digital
filter whose transfer function is

Solution
Eliminating negative exponents yields

• Poles: at 𝑧 = 0.25 and 𝑧 = 2

• Zeros: at 𝑧 = 0
• As one pole lie outside the unit circle at z = 2, hence the system
is unstable. 90
Transfer Function & System Stability
Example-34: The transfer function of a digital system is

Is this system stable?

The poles are located at

For these poles the distance from the center of the unit circle is

As both poles lie inside the unit circle,

So the system is stable.

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Transfer Function & System Stability
Example-35: Determine the stability of the following system.

Solution: Eliminating negative exponents yields

As all poles lie inside the unit circle,

hence the system is stable.

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Difference Equation & System Stability
Example-36: Find the stability of the filter if the difference equation
of the filter is
Y[n] + 0.8y[n-1] – 0.9y[n-2] = x[n-2]
Solution:

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Impulse & Step Responses

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Impulse & Step Responses

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 Impulse & Step Responses

For a step input, we can determine step response assuming zero

initial conditions. Letting

the step response can be found as

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 Impulse & Step Responses
• The z-transform of the general system response is given by

• We can determine the output 𝑦(𝑛) in time domain as

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 Impulse & Step Responses
Example-37: The transfer function of a digital system is
2
𝐻 ( 𝑧 )=
1 −0. 4 𝑧 − 1
a) Determine the difference equation of the system.
b) Find the pole-zero plot and evaluate stability.
c) Find and plot the impulse response.

Solution

a) The difference equation is

y[n] – 0.4y[n – 1] = 2x[n]

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 Impulse & Step Responses
b) The poles and zeros are found from

There is single zero at z = 0 and a single pole at z = 0.4. as shown

in the figure.

The pole is within the unit circle

So the system is stable.

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 Impulse & Step Responses
c) The impulse response of the system is
h[n] = 2(0.4)nu[n]

The impulse response is plotted in the figure.

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0
 Impulse & Step Responses
Example-38: Given a transfer function depicting a DSP system

Determine
a) the Impulse response ℎ(𝑛)
b) the step response 𝑦(𝑛)
c) system response 𝑦(𝑛) if the input is given as 𝑥(𝑛) = (0.5)𝑛𝑢(𝑛)

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1
 Impulse & Step Responses
Solution
a) the Impulse response ℎ(𝑛)
• The transfer function can be rewritten as

• We get

• Taking inverse z transform yields

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2
 Impulse & Step Responses
b) the Step response s(n) or y(𝑛)
• the z-transform of the step response is

or

• We get

• Taking inverse z transform yields

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3
 Impulse & Step Responses
c) system response 𝑦(𝑛) if the input is given as 𝑥(𝑛) = (0.5)𝑛𝑢(𝑛)
• the z-transform of the step response is

or

• We get

• Taking inverse z transform yields

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4
Impulse & Step Responses

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5
  Impulse & Step Responses
• The impulse response of a stable system always settles to
zero.

• The step response of a stable system always settles to a

constant value.

• For unstable systems, on the other hand, these responses

grow without bound.

• Marginally stable systems produce cycling or oscillating

behavior.

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6
Impulse & Step Responses
Stability Illustrations

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7
Impulse & Step Responses
Stability Illustrations

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8
  Impulse & Step Responses
• Among the stable systems, the closer the poles are to the unit
circle, the longer the impulse and step responses take to
settle to their final values.

• When all poles are extremely close to the origin of the z

plane, the responses reach their final values almost
immediately.

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 Impulse & Step Responses
Stable and unstable impulse responses on the z plane

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0
 Impulse & Step Responses
Poles Near Origin

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1
 Impulse & Step Responses
Poles Near Origin

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2
 Impulse & Step Responses
Poles Near Unit Circle

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3
 Impulse & Step Responses
Poles Near Unit Circle

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4
   Steady State Output
• The steady state output for the step response of a stable
system may be computed using the system’s difference
equation, by replacing all outputs y with ySS and all inputs x
with one (1).

For example, the difference equation

y[n] + Ay[n-1] + By[n-2] = x[n]
produces
ySS + AySS + BySS = 1

which gives a steady state output

ySS = 1/(1+A+B)
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   Steady State Output
• The steady state output for the impulse response of a stable
system is always zero.

• Replacing the outputs y with ySS and the inputs x with zero (0)

For example, the difference equation

y[n] + Ay[n-1] + By[n-2] = x[n]
produces
ySS + AySS + BySS = 0

which gives a steady state output

ySS = 0
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   Steady State Output
• The zeros of a system do not have as great an impact on the
system’s behavior as do the poles.

• In fact, when zeros occur far away from the poles, they have a
negligible effect.

• When a zero lies close to a pole, however, it effectively

cancels the behavior due to the pole.

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 Impulse & Step Responses
Effect of Zero Position on Impulse Response

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 Impulse & Step Responses
Effect of Zero Position on Impulse Response

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 Impulse & Step Responses
Effect of Zero Position on Impulse Response

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