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Chapter Two: Introduction To Grammars

This document provides an introduction to formal grammars and phrase structure grammars. It defines key concepts such as grammars, formal languages, derivation, sentential forms, and language generation. Examples are given to illustrate syntax diagrams, Backus-Naur Form, phrase structure grammars, derivation, and construction of grammars to generate specific languages. Exercises are presented at the end for students to practice grammar concepts and construction.

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Ebisa Kebede
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61 views

Chapter Two: Introduction To Grammars

This document provides an introduction to formal grammars and phrase structure grammars. It defines key concepts such as grammars, formal languages, derivation, sentential forms, and language generation. Examples are given to illustrate syntax diagrams, Backus-Naur Form, phrase structure grammars, derivation, and construction of grammars to generate specific languages. Exercises are presented at the end for students to practice grammar concepts and construction.

Uploaded by

Ebisa Kebede
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Chapter Two

Introduction to Grammars
2. Introduction to grammars:

 outline
 Introduction to grammars
 Phrase Structure Grammar and language
 Derivation

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 Introduction to grammars
 A formal language is a collection of strings

over ∑ with some rules known as grammars.

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 Grammar rules can be represented using a syntax
diagram.
 Alternatively BNF (Backus-Naur Form) notation can be
used.

Syntax Diagram
Example:
Identifier

Letter Letter

Letter

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Function Declaration using Syntax Diagram

type name ( variable )

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 BNF uses the following:
 Nonterminals : are enclosed by <>.
 Terminals are represented as they are.
 { } - represent repetition of nonterminals, terminals
zero or more times
 ::= stands for “is defined as”
 | stands for OR
 () used to group symbols

Ex.
<identifier> ::= <letter>|<letter>{<letter>|<digit>}
<letter> ::= a|b|c|…
<digit> ::= 0|1|2|…|9

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Intro …cont’d

Ex 1: Definition of C++ function in BNF

<funct def> ::= <type>|<name>({<parameter>})


<type> ::= int|float|double|void
<name> ::= <identifier>
<parameter>:=<type>|<type><identifier>

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Introduction to grammars: cont’d
 Phrase Structure Grammar (PSG)
 Definition: A PSG is a 4-tuple (N, T, P, S)

where:
a. N is a finite set of nonterminals
b. T is a finite set of terminals
c. P is a finite set of productions /rules/ of the form
αβ, where α and β are strings on N U T and α
should contain at least one symbol from N.
d. S Є N is the start symbol of the grammar.
Note: The right hand side production, β, can be
an empty string. Such a production is called a
λ-production.

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Intro …cont’d

 The production rules specify how to transform


one string to another
String =(T U N)*
 The production X->Y is used to replace X by

Y in the string

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Intro …cont’d
Ex 2. G = (N, T, P, S) = ({S, B, C}, {a, b, c}, P, S)
where P is given by:

S  aSBC | aBC
BC  CB
aB  ab
C  Cc | λ

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Introduction to grammars: cont’d
Derivation
 If α generates β, then we write α => β
 If α => α , α => α , …, α
1 2 2 3 n-1 => αn, then we write
α1 => α2 => α3 => … => αn or α1 => αn +
 Let G = (N, T, P, S) be a grammar, if S => α in zero or
more steps, α Є (N U T)*, then α is called a sentential
form.
 A sentence (in G) is a sentential form in T*.
 The language generated from the grammar G is
denoted by L(G).
*
L(G) = {x Є T* | S =>* x}
i.e. L(G) is the set of all terminal strings derived from
the start symbol S.

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Introduction to grammars: cont’d
Example of a grammar:.
G = (N, T, P, S) where:
N = {<sentence>, <noun>, <verb>, <adverb>}
T = {Sam, Dan, ate, sang, well}
S = <sentence>
P consists of:
<sentence>  <noun><verb> |
<noun><verb><adverb>
<noun>  Sam | Dan
<verb>  ate | sang
<adverb>  well

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Example
Let us consider the grammar −
G = ({S, A}, {a, b}, S, {S → aAb, aA → aaAb, A → λ } )
Some of the strings that can be derived are −
S ⇒ aAb using production S → aAb
⇒ aaAbb using production aA → aAb
⇒ aaaAbbb using production aA → aAb
⇒ aaabbb using production A → λ

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Example:
Suppose we have the following grammar −
G:
N = {S, A, B}
T = {a, b}
P = {S → AB, A → aA|a, B → bB|b}

The language generated by this grammar −


L(G) = {ab, a2b, ab2, a2b2, ………}
= {am bn | m ≥ 1 and n ≥ 1}

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Introduction to grammars: cont’d
Ex3.
S  A|B
A  aA|bB|a|b
B  bB|b

Ex4.
S  a|bS

Ex5.
S  aA|bB|a|b
A  aA|a
B  bB|b

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Introduction to grammars: cont’d
 Note: that reverse derivation is not permitted. For
instance, if S  AB is a production, then we can
replace S by AB, but we cannot replace AB by S.
 Notations:
i. If A is any set, then A* denotes the set of all strings
over A and A+ = A* - {λ}
ii. A, B, C, A1, A2, … denote nonterminals
iii. a, b, c, … denote terminals
iv. x, y, z, w, … denote strings of terminals
v. α, β, … denote strings from (N U T)*
vi. If A  α is a production where A Є N, the production
is called an A-production
vii. If A  α1, A  α2, A  α3, A  α4 … A  αn are all
A-productions, these can be written as A  α1| α2| α3|
α4|… αn
viii. X0 = λ for any symbol X Є N U T
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Introduction to grammars: cont’d
Definition: Let G1 and G2 be two grammars, then G1 and
G2 are equivalent if L(G1) = L(G2).

Ex6. G = ({S}, {a}, {S  SS|a}, S).


Find L(G)

Ex7. G = ({S, C}, {a, b}, P, S) where P is given by:


S  aCa
C  aCa | b
Find L(G)

Ex8. G = ({S}, {a}, {S  aS|a}, S).


Find L(G)

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Construction of a Grammar Generating a
Language
Ex:
Suppose, L (G) = {am bn | m > 0 and n ≥ 0}. We have to find
out the grammar G which produces L(G)
Solution −
Since L(G) = {am bn | m > 0 and n ≥ 0}, the set of strings
accepted can be rewritten as −
L(G) = {a, aa, ab, aaa, aab ,abb, …….}

Hence the grammar −


G: ({S, A, B}, {a, b}, S, {S → aA, A → aA | λ| B, B → λ |
bB })
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Find the grammar that generates :
L={anbn+1 : n≥0}

Solution:
P:
S→aSb | b

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Exercise:9
Let L be the set of all palindromes over {a, b}.
Construct a grammar G that generates L.
Hint: Use the following recursive definition
i. λ is a palindrome
ii. a, b are palindromes
iii. If x is a palindrome, axa and bxb are palindromes

EX: L ={ambm+ncn | m,n>0 }


find G.

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Assignment

 Exercise number 6-9 will be your individual


assignment and will be submitted by next
week.

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