Solar Map of India

About 5,000 trillion

kWh per year
energy is incident
over India’s land
areawith most
parts receiving 4-7
kWh per square
meter per day.
 SOLAR CELLS
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF WORKING
The photovoltaic effect is a process that generates voltage or electric current in a
photovoltaic cell when it is exposed to sunlight.
These solar cells are composed of two different types of semiconductors—a p-type
and an n-type—that are joined together to create a p-n junction.
By joining these two types of semiconductors, an electric field is formed in the
region of the junction as electrons move to the positive p-side and holes move to
the negative n-side.

When sunlight strikes a solar

cell, electrons in the silicon
are ejected, which results in
the formation of “holes”—
the vacancies left behind by
the escaping electrons. If this
happens in the electric field,
the field will move electrons
to the n-type layer and holes
to the p-type layer.
• This field causes negatively charged particles to
move in one direction and positively charged
particles in the other direction.
• Light is composed of photons, which are simply
small bundles of electromagnetic radiation or
energy. When light of a suitable wavelength is
incident on these cells, energy from the photon is
transferred to an electron of the semiconducting
material, causing it to jump to a higher energy
state known as the conduction band.
• In their excited state in the conduction band,
these electrons are free to move through the
material, and it is this motion of the electron that
creates an electric current in the cell.
Introduction

• Solar cell is the photovoltaic device that convert the

light energy (which come from sun) into electrical
energy.
• This device work on the principle of photovoltaic effect.
Photovoltaic Device:
• The generation of voltage across the P-N junction in a
semiconductor due to the absorption of light radiation is
called photovoltaic effect.
• The Devices based on this effect is called photovoltaic
device.
 Principle of Solar Cell
The solar cells are based on the principles of photovoltaic effect.

The Photovoltaic Effect is the photogeneration of charge carriers

in a light absorbing materials as a result of absorption of light
radiation.
Single Solar cell

N-type

P-type
 Construction of Solar Cell

 Solar cell (crystalline Silicon) consists of a n-type

semiconductor (emitter) layer and p-type semiconductor
layer base). The two layers are sandwiched and hence
there is formation of p-n junction.

 The surface is coated with anti-refection coating to

avoid the loss of incident light energy due to reflection.
 A proper metal contacts are made on the n-type and p-
type side of the semiconductor for electrical
connection.
 Structure of a Solar Cell

• When a solar panel exposed to sunlight , the light energies are absorbed by a
semiconductor materials.
• Due to this absorbed energy, the electrons are liberated and produce the external DC
current.
• The DC current is converted into 240-volt AC current using an inverter for different
applications.
 Photovoltaic Cell: Operating Principle

There are three basic steps for generation

of electricity using PV cells which are
following:

 First is absorption of solar

radiation,
 Second is generation of free
charge carriers
 Third is transport and then
collection of charge carriers at
PV
cell terminals.
Doping
Doping means the introduction of impurities into a
semiconductor crystal to the defined modification of
conductivity.
 Types of Solar Cell
Based on the types of crystal used, solar cells can be classified as,

1. Monocrystalline silicon cells

2. Polycrystalline silicon cells
3. Amorphous silicon cells

4. The Monocrystalline silicon cell is produced from pure silicon (single

crystal).

5. Since the Monocrystalline silicon is pure and defect free, the efficiency
of cell will be higher.

6. In polycrystalline solar cell, liquid silicon is used as raw material and

polycrystalline silicon was obtained followed by solidification process.
The materials contain various crystalline sizes.

7. Hence, the efficiency of this type of cell is less than Monocrystalline

cell.
3. Amorphous silicon was obtained by depositing
silicon film on the substrate like glass plate.

• The layer thickness amounts to less than 1µm –

the thickness of a human hair for comparison is
50-100 µm.

• The efficiency of amorphous cells is much lower

than that of the other two cell types.

• As a result, they are used mainly in low power

equipment, such as watches and pocket
calculators, or as facade elements.
 Comparison of Types of solar cell

Material Efficiency (%)

Monocrystalline silicon 14-17

Polycrystalline silicon 13-15

Amorphous silicon 5-7

Materials for Solar cell

Solar cells are composed of various semiconducting

materials
• Crystalline silicon
• Cadmium telluride
• Copper indium diselenide
• Gallium arsenide
• Indium phosphide
• Zinc sulphide
Three generations of solar cells
1.First Generation
• First generation cells consist of high quality and single junction
devices.
• First Generation technologies involve high energy and labour inputs
which prevent any significant progress in reducing production costs.
2. Second Generation
• Second generation materials have been developed to address energy
requirements and production costs of solar cells.
• Alternative manufacturing techniques such as vapour deposition
and electroplating are advantageous as they reduce high temperature
processing significantly.
• Produced from cheaper polycrystalline materials and glass
• High optical absorption coefficients
• Bandgap suited to solar spectrum
 3. ThirdGeneration

 Third generation technologies aim to enhance poor electrical performance of

second generation (thin-film technologies) while maintaining very low
production costs.

 Current research is targeting conversion efficiencies of 30-60% while

retaining low cost materials and manufacturing techniques.
 They can exceed the theoretical solar conversion efficiency limit .

 Approaches to achieving these high efficiencies including the use of

multijunction photovoltaic cells, concentration of the incident spectrum, the
use of thermal generation by UV light to enhance voltage or carrier
collection, or the use of the infrared spectrum for night-time operation.
 First Generation
– Single Junction Silicon Cells

 Limit efficiency 31%

 Single crystal silicon - 16-19%
efficiency

 Multi-crystal silicon - 14-15%

efficiency
 Best efficiency by Sun Power
22%
 45.2% Single Crystal Si
 42.2% Multi-crystal SI
S
 Second Generation
– Thin Film Cells
New materials and processes to improve efficiency
and reduce cost.

Thin film cells use about 1% of the expensive

semiconductors compared to First Generation cells.
 Single Crystal Si has 8–11% efficiency.

 Multi Crystal Si has 7-11% efficiency.

 – Multi-junction Cells
Third Generation

Enhance poor electrical performance while maintaining very low production

costs.

Current research is targeting conversion efficiencies of 30-60% while

retaining low cost materials and manufacturing techniques.

 Multi-junction cells – 30% efficiency (40-43% demonstrated)

 Hierarchy of PV
Volt Ampere Watt Size
Cell 0.5V 5-6A 2-3W about
10cm
Modu 20-30V 5-6A 100- about 1m
le 200W
Array 200- 50A- 10- about 30m ray
300V 200A 50kW 10 - 50
Mod Ar kW
ule,P
anel
100 -
200
W

C
e
l
l 6x9=54 100-300
2 (cells) (modules)
PV Module (Single crystal, Poly crystalline Silicon)
POLY
Single crystal 120W (25.7V, 4.7A)
Poly crystalline
128W
(26.5V ,4.8A)

1200mm
1200
mm （ 3.93f
) ）

800mm Same
800mm )
size

Efficiency is higher Efficiency is lower

 Amorphous Thin Film
 Most inexpensive technology to produce
 Metal grid replaced with
transparent oxides

 Efficiency = 6 – 8 %

 Can be deposited on flexible substrates

 Less susceptible to shading problems

 Better performance in low light conditions
that with crystalline modules
 Open circuit voltage and short circuit current

• Voltage on normal operation

P point 0.5V (in case of Silicon
A PV)
N
• Current depend on
(A - Intensity of insolation
) Short
Circuit - Size of cell
Normal operation
High
point
insolation
(Maximum Power
Current(I)

point)
Low insolation P
V
Ix V= W N
Open
(V Circuit
)
Voltage(V) about 0.5V
(Silicon)
 Shading on Modules

 Depends on orientation of
internal module circuitry
relative to the orientation of
the shading.
 Shading can half or even
completely eliminate the output
of a solar array.
 Series Connections

Loads/sources wired in series

 VOLTAGES ARE ADDITIVE

 CURRENT IS EQUAL
 Parallel Connections

Loads/sources wired in parallel:

• VOLTAGE REMAINS CONSTANT
• CURRENTS ARE ADDITIVE
SOLAR CELL PROTECTION-USE OF
DIODES
• A diode is a semiconductor device that essentially acts
as a one-way switch for current.
• It allows current to flow easily in one direction, but
severely restricts current from flowing in the opposite
direction.

• Diodes are also known as rectifiers because they change

alternating current (ac) into pulsating direct current
(dc).
• Diodes are rated according to their type, voltage, and
current capacity.
 Blocking Diodes
 During sun shine, as long as the voltage produced by the
panels is greater than that of the battery, charging will take
place.
 In the dark, the voltage of the battery would cause a current
flow in reverse direction through the panels, which can
lead to the discharging of battery.

A blocking diode is used in series with the panels and

battery in reverse biasing to prevent reverse flow of the
current.
 Normal p-n junction diodes can be used as blocking
diodes.
 To select a blocking diode, following parameters should
be kept in mind:
 The maximum current provided by the panels.
 The voltage ratings of the diode.
 The reverse breakdown voltage of the diode.
 Hot- Spot and Bypass Diodes

 Hot Spot phenomenon happens

when one or more cells of the panel
is shaded while the others are
illuminated.

 The shaded cells/panels starts

behaving as a diode polarized in
reverse direction and generates
reverse power. The other cells
generate a current that flows through
the shaded cell and the load.
 Hot- Spot and Bypass Diodes
 Any solar cell has its own critical power
dissipation Pc that must not be exceeded
and depends on its cooling and material
structures, its area, its maximum
operating temperature and ambient
temperature.
 A shaded cell may be destroyed when its
reverse dissipation exceeds Pc. This is
the hot spot.
 To eliminate the hot-spot
phenomenon, a bypass diode is
connected parallel to the module or
group of cells in reverse polarity which
provides another path to the extra
current.
 Bypass Diodes working

 When part of a PV module is

shaded, the shaded cells
will not be able to produce
as much current as the
unshaded cells.
 Since all cells are connected
in series, the same amount
of current must flow
through every cell.
 The unshaded cells will force
more current to pass
through shaded celss

Bypass diode working

phases
Bypass Diodes working
 The only way the shaded cells can operate at a current higher than their
short circuit current is to operate in a region of negative voltage i.e. to cause
a net voltage loss to the system.
 The voltage across the shaded or low current solar cell becomes greater than
the
forward bias voltage of the other series cells which share the same bypass
diode plus the voltage of the bypass diode thus making the diode to work in
forward bias and hence allowing extra current to pass through it, preventing
hot-spot.
 For an efficient operation, there are two conditions to fulfill:
 Bypass diode has to conduct when one cell is shadowed.
 The shadowed cell voltage Vs must stay under its breakdown voltage
(Vc).
 Ideally, a bypass diode should have a forward voltage (VF) and a leakage
current (IR) as low as possible.
 Solar Panel specifications
Mechanical Specifications
1.Solar Cell Type:
Defines the type of module or cell used in the Module.
e.g.- Mono-Si, Poly-Si or Thin Film.
Design Implication:
This determines the class of conversion efficiency of the
module.
2.Cell Dimension (in inches/mm.):
Defines the size of cell used in the module.
e.g.- 125(l) × 125 mm(b)
Design Implication:
This determines the output power of a single solar cell.
3. Module Dimension (in inches/mm.):
Defines the size of the panel.
e.g.- 1580 (l)× 808 (b) × 35 (h) mm.
Design Implication:
Determines the number of cells accommodated
inthe module.
Across length: 1580/125 = 12.64 ~ 12
[least integer].
Across breadth: 808/125 = 6.4 ~ 6.
This means number of cell be 72
(6*12).
 Solar Panel specifications
4.Module Weight (in kgs):
Defines the weight of the module. e.g.- 15.5 kgs.
Design Implication:
Determines the maximum number of panels which can be installed.

5.Glazing or front Glass:

Defines the type and width of the front glass used. e.g.- 3.2 mm tempered glass.

Design Implication:
Width determines the strength of the covering. The type of glass used depends upon
thermal insulation requirements or strength requirement.

6.Frame:
Defines the type of frame used in the module.
(e.g.Anodized aluminium alloy)

Design Implication:
Frame material is chosen so that it can Withstand the
environmental effects such as corrosion, hard Impact etc.
 Electrical Specifications

Peak Power (W):

Defines the maximum power of the panel. e.g.- P: 195 Wp

Optimum operating Voltage:

Defines the highest operating voltage of panel at the maximum power at STC.
e.g.- Vmp: 36.6V

Design Implication:
Determines the number of panels required in series.

Optimum operating current:

Defines the highest operating current of panel at the maximum power at STC.
e.g.- Imp: 5.33A

Design Implication:

Determines the wire gauge.

Used to calculate the voltage drops across the modules or cells.
 Electrical Specifications
Open Circuit Voltage:

Defines the output voltage when no load is connected under STC.

e.g.- Voc : 45.4V

Design Implication:

Determines the maximum possible voltage. Determines the

maximum number of modules in series.

Short Circuit Current:

Defines the protection level of electrical casing at the back of panel. Also includes the
no. of bypass diodes (if used).
e.g.- Isc: 5.69A

Design Implication:

Determines the current rating of fuse which is to be used for protection.

Determines the conductor size.
 Electrical Specifications
Module Efficiency:
Defines the conversion efficiency given by a given module (which is generally lesser than
the single solar cell used in the module).
e.g.- 15.3%

Design Implication:
This parameter helps in solving the problem of choosing a module.

Operating Temperature:
Defines the range of temperature for which the module can function.
e.g.- -40°C to 85°C

Design Implication:
Determines the temperature range for the environment in which the panel can be kept.

Max. Series Fuse Rating:

Defines the max. current which can be handled by the module without damage. eg 15 A
Design Implication:
This defines the rating of fuse to be used with the module.
 Electrical Specifications
Power Tolerance:
Defines the range of power deviation from its stated power ratings due to
change in its operating condition. It is defined in %.
e.g.- 0/+5 %.

Design Implication:
This parameter determines the upper limit for power of a module.

Parameters defined under NOCT:

These parameters are same as defined under STC

conditions with different values.

Difference between STC and NOCT:

STC (Standard Test Conditions):

Irradiance 1000 W/m2, Module temperature 25 °C, Air Mass=1.5

NOCT(Nominal Operating Cell Temperature):

Irradiance 800 W/m2, Ambient temperature 20 °C, Wind speed 1 m/s
Electrical Specifications

Temperature Coefficients:
These coefficients are defined to show the possible rate of change of values under
varying module temperature and irradiance.

Design Implication:
These parameters can be used to calculate the power, current and voltage of the
module.

Temperature Coefficient of Voc can also be used to determine the maximum panel
voltage at the lowest expected temperature.
 How to choose a solar panel?
Critical parameters to be considered for solar panel evaluation

1. Selecting the right technology :

The selection of solar panel technology generally depends

on space available for installation and the overall cost of the
system.
2.Selecting the right manufacturer for better warranty.
3. Check operating specifications beyond STC ratings
4. Negative Tolerance can lead to a lower system
performance and
reduced capacity.
5. Solar Panel efficiency under different conditions
and over time.
 Types of Solar Photovoltaic System

 Stand-alone systems - those systems which use photovoltaics technology

only, and are not connected to a utility grid.

 Hybrid systems - those systems which use photovoltaics and some other
form of energy, such as diesel generation or wind.

 Grid-tied systems - those systems which are connected to a utility grid.

 Stand Alone PV System
Water pumping system
Hybrid PV System
Grid-Tied PV System
 Balance of System (BOS)

The BOS typically contains

 Structures for mounting the PV arrays or modules.

 Power conditioning equipment that massages and

converts the do electricity to the proper form and
magnitude required by an alternating current (ac) load.

 Sometimes also storage devices, such as batteries, for

storing PV generated electricity during cloudy days and
at night.