Digital Fundamentals

Floyd

Chapter 2

© 2009 Pearson Education

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Decimal Numbers

The position of each digit in a weighted number system is

assigned a weight based on the base or radix of the system.
The radix of decimal numbers is ten, because only ten
symbols (0 through 9) are used to represent any number.
The column weights of decimal numbers are powers
of ten that increase from right to left beginning with 100 =1:
…105 104 103 102 101 100.
For fractional decimal numbers, the column weights
are negative powers of ten that decrease from left to right:
102 101 100. 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 …

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Decimal Numbers

Decimal numbers can be expressed as the sum of the

products of each digit times the column value for that digit.
Thus, the number 9240 can be expressed as
     (9 x 103) + (2 x 102) + (4 x 101) + (0 x 100)
or
9 x 1,000 + 2 x 100 + 4 x 10 + 0 x 1
Express the number 480.52 as the sum of values of each
digit.

480.52 = (4 x 102) + (8 x 101) + (0 x 100) + (5 x 10-1) +(2 x 10-2)

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Binary Numbers

For digital systems, the binary number system is used.

Binary has a radix of two and uses the digits 0 and 1 to
represent quantities.
The column weights of binary numbers are powers of
two that increase from right to left beginning with 20 =1:
…25 24 23 22 21 20.
For fractional binary numbers, the column weights
are negative powers of two that decrease from left to right:
22 21 20. 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 …

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary Decimal Binary
Number Number

Binary Numbers 0 000

0
A binary counting sequence for numbers 1 000
from zero to fifteen is shown. 1
2 001
Notice the pattern of zeros and ones 0
in each column. 3 001
Digital counters frequently have this 1
4 010
same pattern of digits: 0
Counter 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Decoder
5 010
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
6 011
0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
7 011
1
8 100
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 ed
th
0 Reserved
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights
 Summary
Binary Conversions

The decimal equivalent of a binary number can be

determined by adding the column values of all of the bits
that are 1 and discarding all of the bits that are 0.
Convert the binary number 100101.01 to decimal.
Start by writing the column weights; then add the
weights that correspond to each 1 in the number.
25 24 23 22 21 20. 2-1 2-2
32 16 8 4 2 1 . ½ ¼
1 0 0 1 0 1. 0 1
32 +4 +1 +¼ = 37¼

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Binary Conversions

You can convert a decimal whole number to binary by

reversing the procedure. Write the decimal weight of each
column and place 1’s in the columns that sum to the decimal
number.
Convert the decimal number 49 to binary.
The column weights double in each position to the
right. Write down column weights until the last
number is larger than the one you want to convert.
26 25 24 23 22 21 20.
64 32 16 8 4 2 1.
0 1 1 0 0 0 1.

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Binary Conversions

You can convert a decimal fraction to binary by repeatedly

multiplying the fractional results of successive
multiplications by 2. The carries form the binary number.
Convert the decimal fraction 0.188 to binary by
repeatedly multiplying the fractional results by 2.
MSB
0.188 x 2 = 0.376 carry = 0
0.376 x 2 = 0.752 carry = 0
0.752 x 2 = 1.504 carry = 1
0.504 x 2 = 1.008 carry = 1
0.008 x 2 = 0.016 carry = 0
Answer = .00110 (for five significant digits)
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Binary Conversions

You can convert decimal to any other base by repeatedly

dividing by the base. For binary, repeatedly divide by 2:
Convert the decimal number 49 to binary by
repeatedly dividing by 2.
You can do this by “reverse division” and the
answer will read from left to right. Put quotients to
the left and remainders on top.
Answer: remainder
1 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 3 6 12 24 49 2
Continue until the Decimal
Quotient base
last quotient is 0 number

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Binary Addition

The rules for binary addition are

0+0=0 Sum = 0, carry = 0
0+1=1 Sum = 1, carry = 0
1+0=0 Sum = 1, carry = 0
1 + 1 = 10 Sum = 0, carry = 1
When an input carry = 1 due to a previous result, the rules
are
1 + 0 + 0 = 01 Sum = 1, carry = 0
1 + 0 + 1 = 10 Sum = 0, carry = 1
1 + 1 + 0 = 10 Sum = 0, carry = 1
1 + 1 + 1 = 11 Sum = 1, carry = 1

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Binary Addition

Add the binary numbers 00111 and 10101 and show

the equivalent decimal addition.
0111
00111 7
10101 21
11100 = 28

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Binary Subtraction

The rules for binary subtraction are

00=0
11=0
10=1
10  1 = 1 with a borrow of 1
Subtract the binary number 00111 from 10101 and
show the equivalent decimal subtraction.
111
10101
/ / / 21
00111 7
01110 = 14

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
1’s Complement

The 1’s complement of a binary number is just the inverse

of the digits. To form the 1’s complement, change all 0’s
to 1’s and all 1’s to 0’s.
For example, the 1’s complement of 11001010 is
00110101
In digital circuits, the 1’s complement is formed by using
inverters:
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
2’s Complement

The 2’s complement of a binary number is found by

adding 1 to the LSB of the 1’s complement.
Recall that the 1’s complement of 11001010 is
00110101 (1’s complement)
To form the 2’s complement, add 1: +1
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 00110110 (2’s complement)
1

0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
Input bits
Carry
Adder
in (add 1)
Output bits (sum)

0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Signed Binary Numbers

There are several ways to represent signed binary numbers.

In all cases, the MSB in a signed number is the sign bit, that
tells you if the number is positive or negative.
Computers use a modified 2’s complement for
signed numbers. Positive numbers are stored in true form
(with a 0 for the sign bit) and negative numbers are stored
in complement form (with a 1 for the sign bit).
For example, the positive number 58 is written using 8-bits
as 00111010 (true form).

Sign bit Magnitude bits

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Signed Binary Numbers
Negative numbers are written as the 2’s complement of
the corresponding positive number.
The negative number 58 is written as:
58 = 11000110 (complement form)
Sign bit Magnitude bits
An easy way to read a signed number that uses this notation is to
assign the sign bit a column weight of 128 (for an 8-bit number).
Then add the column weights for the 1’s.
Assuming that the sign bit = 128, show that 11000110 = 58
as a 2’s complement signed number:
Column weights: 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1.
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
128 +64 +4 +2 = 58

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Biased exponent (+127)
Exponent number : -127 -1 0 1 (+128)

Biased exponent number : 0 126 127 128 (+255)

Biased exponent number(+127) = exponent number + 127

exponent number = Biased exponent number(+127) - 127

© 2009 Pearson Education

 Summary
Floating Point Numbers
Floating point notation is capable of representing very
large or small numbers by using a form of scientific
notation. A 32-bit single precision number is illustrated.
S E (8 bits) F (23 bits)
Sign bit Magnitude with MSB dropped
Express the speed of light, c, in single precision floating point
notation. (c = 0.2998 x 109)
Biased exponent (+127)
In binary, c = 0001 0001 1101 1110 1001 0101 1100 00002.
In scientific notation, c = 1. 0001 1101 1110 1001 0101 1100 0000 x 228.
S = 0 because the number is positive. E = 28 + 127 = 15510 = 1001 10112.
F is the next 23 bits after the first 1 is dropped.
In floating point notation, c = 0 10011011 0001 1101 1110 1001 0101 110

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Arithmetic Operations with Signed Numbers
Using the signed number notation with negative
numbers in 2’s complement form simplifies addition
and subtraction of signed numbers.
Rules for addition: Add the two signed numbers. Discard
any final carries. The result is in signed form.
Examples:
00011110 = +30 00001110 = +14 11111111 = 1
00001111 = +15 11101111 = 17 11111000 = 8
00101101 = +45 11111101 = 3 1 11110111 = 9
Discard carry

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Arithmetic Operations with Signed Numbers

Note that if the number of bits required for the answer is

exceeded, overflow will occur. This occurs only if both
numbers have the same sign. The overflow will be
indicated by an incorrect sign bit.
Two examples are:
01000000 = +64 10000001 = 127
01000001 = +65 10000001 = 127
10000001 = 127 Discard carry 100000010 = +2

Wrong! The answer is incorrect

and the sign bit has changed.

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Arithmetic Operations with Signed Numbers
Rules for subtraction: 2’s complement the subtrahend and
add the numbers. Discard any final carries. The result is in
signed form.
Repeat the examples done previously, but subtract:
00011110 (+30) 00001110 (+14) 11111111 (1)
 00001111 –(+15)  11101111 –(17)  11111000 –(8)
2’s complement subtrahend and add:
00011110 = +30 00001110 = +14 11111111 = 1
11110001 = 15 00010001 = +17 00001000 = 8
1 00001111 = +15 00011111 = +31 1 00000111 = +7
Discard carry Discard carry

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Decimal Hexadecimal Binary
Hexadecimal Numbers 0 0 0000
1 1 0001
Hexadecimal uses sixteen characters to 2 2 0010
represent numbers: the numbers 0 3 3 0011
through 9 and the alphabetic characters 4 4 0100
A through F. 5 5 0101
6 6 0110
Large binary number can easily 7 7 0111
be converted to hexadecimal by 8 8 1000
grouping bits 4 at a time and writing 9 9 1001
the equivalent hexadecimal character. 10 A 1010
11 B 1011
Express 1001 0110 0000 11102 in 12 C 1100
hexadecimal: 13 D 1101
Group the binary number by 4-bits 14 E 1110
starting from the right. Thus, 960E 15 F 1111

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Decimal Hexadecimal Binary
Hexadecimal Numbers 0 0 0000
1 1 0001
Hexadecimal is a weighted number 2 2 0010
system. The column weights are 3 3 0011
powers of 16, which increase from 4 4 0100
5 5 0101
right to left. 6 6 0110
Column weights 4096{
163 162 161 160.
256 16 1 .
7
8
7
8
0111
1000
9 9 1001
Express 1A2F16 in decimal. 10 A 1010
11 B 1011
Start by writing the column weights:
12 C 1100
4096 256 16 1
13 D 1101
1 A 2 F16
14 E 1110
1(4096) + 10(256) +2(16) +15(1) = 670310 15 F 1111

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Decimal Octal Binary
Octal Numbers 0 0 0000
1 1 0001
Octal uses eight characters the numbers 2 2 0010
0 through 7 to represent numbers. 3 3 0011
There is no 8 or 9 character in octal. 4 4 0100
5 5 0101
Binary number can easily be
6 6 0110
converted to octal by grouping bits 3 at 7 7 0111
a time and writing the equivalent octal 8 10 1000
character for each group. 9 11 1001
10 12 1010
Express 1 001 011 000 001 1102 in
11 13 1011
octal: 12 14 1100
Group the binary number by 3-bits 13 15 1101
starting from the right. Thus, 1130168 14 16 1110
15 17 1111

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Decimal Octal Binary
Octal Numbers 0 0 0000
1 1 0001
Octal is also a weighted number 2 2 0010
system. The column weights are 3 3 0011
powers of 8, which increase from right 4 4 0100
5 5 0101
to left. 6 6 0110
Column weights 512 {
8 3 82 81 80 .
64 8 1 .
7
8
7
10
0111
1000
9 11 1001
Express 37028 in decimal. 10 12 1010
11 13 1011
Start by writing the column weights:
12 14 1100
512 64 8 1
13 15 1101
3 7 0 28
14 16 1110
3(512) + 7(64) +0(8) +2(1) = 198610 15 17 1111

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Decimal Binary BCD
BCD 0 0000 0000
1 0001 0001
Binary coded decimal (BCD) is a 2 0010 0010
weighted code that is commonly 3 0011 0011
used in digital systems when it is 4 0100 0100
5 0101 0101
necessary to show decimal 6 0110 0110
numbers such as in clock displays. 7 0111 0111
The table illustrates the 8 1000 1000
difference between straight binary and 9 1001 1001
BCD. BCD represents each decimal 10 1010 0001 0000
digit with a 4-bit code. Notice that the 11 1011 0001 0001
codes 1010 through 1111 are not used in 12 1100 0001 0010
BCD. 13 1101 0001 0011
14 1110 0001 0100
15 1111 0001 0101
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
BCD

You can think of BCD in terms of column weights in

groups of four bits. For an 8-bit BCD number, the column
weights are: 80 40 20 10 8 4 2 1.
What are the column weights for the BCD number
1000 0011 0101 1001?

8000 4000 2000 1000 800 400 200 100 80 40 20 10 8 4 2 1

Note that you could add the column weights where there is
a 1 to obtain the decimal number. For this case:
8000 + 200 +100 + 40 + 10 + 8 +1 = 835910

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
BCD
A lab experiment in which BCD
is converted to decimal is shown.

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
Gray Code 1 bit 2 bits 3 bits

0 0 0 0 00
1 0 1 0 01
____

1 1 0 11
10 0 10
1 10
1 11

1 01
1 00

© 2009 Pearson Education

 Summary
Gray code Decimal Binary Gray code
0 0000 0000
Gray code is an unweighted code 1 0001 0001
that has a single bit change between 2 0010 0011
3 0011 0010
one code word and the next in a
4 0100 0110
sequence. Gray code is used to 5 0101 0111
avoid problems in systems where an 6 0110 0101
error can occur if more than one bit 7 0111 0100
changes at a time. 8 1000 1100
9 1001 1101
10 1010 1111
11 1011 1110
12 1100 1010
13 1101 1011
14 1110 1001
15 1111 1000
© 2009 Pearson Education
 Summary
ASCII

ASCII is a code for alphanumeric characters and control

characters. In its original form, ASCII encoded 128
characters and symbols using 7-bits. The first 32 characters
are control characters, that are based on obsolete teletype
requirements, so these characters are generally assigned to
other functions in modern usage.

In 1981, IBM introduced extended ASCII, which is an 8-

bit code and increased the character set to 256. Other
extended sets (such as Unicode) have been introduced to
handle characters in languages other than English.

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved