TRANSFORMER

Working principle of transformer:-

A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece

of apparatus by means of which electric power
in one circuit is transformed into electric
power of the same frequency in another circuit.
It can raise or lower the voltage in a circuit but
with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. The physical basis of a
transformer is mutual induction between two circuits linked by a common
magnetic flux. In its simplest form, it consists of two inductive coils which are
electrically separated but magnetically linked through a path of low reluctance as
shown in Fig
The two coils possess high mutual inductance. If one coil is connected to a
source of alternating voltage, an alternating flux is set up in the laminated
core, most of which is linked with the other coil in which it produces
mutually-induced e.m.f. (according to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic
Induction e = MdI/dt).
If the second coil circuit is closed, a current flows in it and so electric energy is
transferred (entirely magnetically) from the first coil to the second coil. The
first coil, in which electric energy is fed from the a.c. supply mains, is called
primary winding and the other from which energy is drawn out, is called
secondary winding.
A transformer is a device that
1. transfers electric power from one circuit to another
2. it does so without a change of frequency
3. it accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction and
4. where the two electric circuits are in mutual inductive influence of each other.
 Transformer Construction
1. The simple elements of a transformer consist of two coils having mutual
inductance and a laminated steel core.
2. The two coils are insulated from each other and the steel core. Other
necessary parts are :some suitable container for assembled core and
windings ; a suitable medium for insulating the core and its windings from its
container suitable bushings (either of porcelain, oil-filled or capacitor-type)
for insulating and bringing out the terminals of windings from the tank.

3. The steel used is of high silicon content, sometimes heat treated to produce a
high permeability and a low hysteresis loss at the usual operating flux
densities. The eddy current loss is minimised by laminating the core, the
laminations being insulated from each other by a light coat of core-plate
varnish or by an oxide layer on the surface.
Constructionally, the transformers are of two general types, distinguished
from each other merely by the manner in which the primary and secondary
coils are placed around the laminated core. The two types are known as
(a) core-type and (b) shell type.

Another means of classifying the transformers is according to the type of

cooling employed. The following types are in common use :
(a)oil-filled self-cooled (b) oil-filled water-cooled (c) air-blast type
 In both core and shell-type transformers, the individual laminations are cut

in the form of long strips of L’s, E’s and I’s as shown in Fig a. The assembly
of the complete core for the two types of transformers is shown in Fig. b

Fig. a Fig. b
 E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer
Let N1 = No. of turns in primary
N2 = No. of turns in secondary
Φm = Maximum flux in core in webers
= Bm × A
f = Frequency of a.c. input in Hz

flux increases from its zero value to maximum

value Φm in one quarter of the cycle i.e. in 1/4 f second.
∴ Average rate of change of flux = Φm
1/4f
= 4 fΦm Wb/s or volt

Now, rate of change of flux per turn means induced e.m.f. in volts.

∴ Average e.m.f./turn = 4 f Φm volt

If flux Φ varies sinusoidally, then r.m.s. value of induced e.m.f. is obtained by
multiplying the average value with form factor
 Form factor = r.m.s. value
average value
= 1.11
∴ r.m.s. value of e.m.f./turn = 1.11 × 4 f Φm = 4.44 f Φm volt

r.m.s. value of the induced e.m.f. in the whole of primary winding

= (induced e.m.f/turn) × No. of primary turns
E1 = 4.44 f N1 Φm = 4.44 f N1 BmA (1)

 Similarly, r.m.s. value of the e.m.f. induced in secondary is,

E2 = 4.44 f N2 Φm = 4.44 f N2 BmA (2)
from equation 1 & 2

E1/N1 = E2/N2 = 4.44 f Φm

 It means that e.m.f./turn is the same in both the primary and secondary windings.
Voltage Transformation Ratio (K)

 From equations (1) and (2), we get

E2/E1= N2/N1=K
This constant K is known as voltage transformation ratio.

(i) If N2 > N1 i.e. K >1, then transformer is called step-up transformer.

(ii) If N2< N1 i.e. K<1, then transformer is known as step-down transformer.
Again, for an ideal transformer, input VA = output VA.

Hence, currents are in the inverse ratio of the (voltage) transformation ratio.
 Transformer Tests

(i) open-circuit test

(ii) short circuit test

The performance of a transformer can be calculated on the basis of its
equivalent circuit which contains four main parameters, the equivalent
resistance R01 as referred to primary (or secondary R02), the equivalent
leakage reactance X01 as referred to primary (or secondary X02), the core-
loss conductance G0 (or resistance R0) and the magnetising susceptance B0
(or reactance X0).
Open-circuit or No-load Test
The purpose of this test is to determine no-load loss or core loss and no-load I0
which is helpful in finding X0 and R0.

One winding of the transformer – whichever is convenient but usually high

voltage winding – is left open and the other is connected to its supply of
normal voltage and frequency. A wattmeter W, voltmeter V and an ammeter A
are connected in the low voltage winding i.e. primary winding in the present
case
 With normal voltage applied to the primary, normal flux will be set up in the

core, hence normal iron losses will occur which are recorded by the wattmeter.
As the primary no-load current I 0 (as measured by ammeter) is small (usually 2
to 10% of rated load current), Cu loss is negligibly small in primary and nil in
secondary (it being open). Hence, the wattmeter reading represents practically
the core loss under no-load condition

 It should be noted that since I 0 is itself very small, the pressure coils of the

wattmeter and the voltmeter are connected such that the current in them does not
pass through the current coil of the wattmeter.

 If W is the wattmeter reading then W = V1 I0 cos ø0

Iμ = I0 sin ø0 , Iw = I0 cos ø0

∴ X0 = V1/Iμ and R0 = V1/Iw

 Short-Circuit Test

This is an economical method for determining the following :

(i)Equivalent impedance (Z01 or Z02), leakage reactance (X01 or X02) and total
resistance (R01 or R02) of the transformer as referred to the winding in which
the measuring Instruments are placed.
(ii) Cu loss at full load (and at any desired load). This loss is used in calculating the
efficiency of the transformer.
(iii) Knowing Z01 or Z02, the total voltage drop in the transformer as referred to
primary or secondary can be calculated and hence regulation of the transformer
determined.
 In this test, one winding, usually the low-voltage winding, is solidly short-

circuited by a thick conductor (or through an ammeter which may serve the
additional purpose of indicating rated load current) as shown in Fig
 A low voltage at correct frequency (though for Cu losses it is not essential)

is applied to the primary and is cautiously increased till full-load currents

are flowing both in primary and secondary.
 Since, in this test, the applied voltage is a small percentage of the normal

voltage, the mutual flux Φ produced is also a small percentage of its normal
value . Hence, core losses are very small with the result that the wattmeter
reading represent the full-load Cu loss or I2R loss for the whole transformer.
 If Vsc is the voltage required to circulate rated load currents, then

Z01=Vsc/I1

W = I2 R01
Losses in a Transformer
(i) Core or Iron Loss:
 It includes both hysteresis loss and eddy current loss. Because the core flux in a

transformer remains practically constant for all loads (its variation being 1 to
3% from no-load to full-load). The core loss is practically the same at all loads.
 The core loss is practically the same at all loads

Hysteresis loss Wh = η B1.6max f V watt

Eddy current loss We = PB2max f2t2 watt

 These losses are minimized by using steel of high silicon content for the core

and by using very thin laminations. Iron or core loss is found from the O.C.
test. The input of the transformer when on no load measures the core loss.
(ii) Copper loss:- This loss is due to the ohmic resistance of the transformer
windings. Total

Cu loss= I12R1 + I22R2

It is clear that Cu loss is proportional to (current)2 or kVA2. In other words, Cu

loss at half the full-load is one-fourth of that at full-load.
 The value of Cu loss is found from the short-circuit test
Efficiency of a Transformer
As is the case with other types of electrical machines, the efficiency of a
transformer at a particular load and power factor is defined as the output
divided by the input–the two being measured in the same units (either watts
or kilowatts).

 But a transformer being a highly efficient piece of equipment, has very

small loss, hence it is impractical to try to measure transformer, efficiency

by measuring input and output. These quantities are nearly of the same size.
A better method is to determine the losses and then to calculate the
efficiency from
It may be noted here that efficiency is based on power output in watts and not
in volt-amperes, although losses are proportional to VA. Hence, at any volt-
ampere load, the efficiency depends on power factor, being maximum at a
power factor of unity. Efficiency can be computed by determining core loss
from no-load or open-circuit test and Cu loss from the short-circuit test.
Condition for Maximum Efficiency:-