DIGITAL

COMMUNICTIONS
4-PULSE CODE MODULATION
Line Codes and Spectra
Reference: Digital and Analog Communication Systems 7th Ed by Leon W. Couch, II
Chapter 3
Digital Signaling
Signals in digital domain can be represented as a digital
waveform with specific number of levels.
Let
L - possible values that can represent a word
 - the number of bits required to achieve L-levels

TWO TYPES OF SIGNALING

1. Binary Signaling - the signal dimension L=2 and thus =1
2. Multi-level Signaling –signal dimension is L > 2 or >1
Binary Signaling Waveform
Multilevel Signal Generation

2-bit Digital to Analog converter

Binary Input Output Level
(=2bits) (V)
11 +3
10 +1
00 -1
01 -3
Baud and Bandwidth Estimation
N
Baud or Symbol Rate (D): D
To

N 1
Lower Bound Bandwidth: B  D
2To 2

 Binary Signaling
Condition: N=n, L=2 and =1

DR
 Multilevel Signaling
Condition: N=n/ , L>2 and >1

R  D
Problem Set – Digital Signaling
Binary Line Coding
Two Major Categories
Non-return to zero (NRZ)
Return to zero (RZ)
Signaling Scheme
1. Unipolar Signaling – in positive logic unipolar signaling, the binary 1 is
represented by a high level (+A volts) and a binary 0 by a zero level.
2. Polar Signaling – Binary 1’s and 0’s are represented by equal positive and
negative levels.
3. Bipolar (Pseudoternary) Signaling – Binary 1’s are represented by
alternately positive and negative values. The binary 0 is represented by a
zero level. [pseudoternary – refers to the use of three encoded signal levels
to represent two-level data). Also called alternate mark inversion (AMI)
signaling.
4. Machester Signaling - each binary 1 is represented by a positive half-bit
period pulse followed by a negative half-bit period pulse. A binary 0 is
represented by a negative half bit period pulse followed by a positive half bit
period pulse. Also called split-phase encoding
Binary Signaling Format
Properties of Line Codes
1. Self –syncronization
2. Low probability bit error
3. Spectrum that is suitable for the
channel
4. Transmission bandwidth
5. Error detection capability
6. Transparency
Power Spectra – Formulas & Identities
Fourier transform pair of Rectangular Pulse
 t  sin  f  
f (t )      F ( f )  
   f  
Poisson’s sum formula

1 
 n 
 e jk 2  fT b

Tb
   f  
Tb 
k   n   
General PSD Expression

F f  2

s f   R k e j 2  kfT s

Ts k  
 Unipolar NRZ Signaling
1 2
2 A k 0
Autocorrelation Runipolar k    Pulse width:  = Tb
function: 1
 A2 k 0
4
2
A 2 Tb  sin  fT b   1 
PSD:  unipolar NRZ (f)   1   ( f ) 
4   fT b   T b 
For normalized average power = 1, A = 2

The disadvantage of unipolar NRZ is the

waste of power due to the DC level and the
fact that the spectrum is not approaching
zero near DC. DC coupled circuits are
needed.[Couch, 2007]

The advantages of unipolar signaling are that

it is easy to generate using TTL and CMOS
circuits and requires the use of only one
power supply.
Polar NRZ Signaling
 A2 k 0
Autocorrelation R polar k    Pulse width:  = Tb
function: 0 k 0
2
 sin  fT b 
PSD:  polar NRZ ( f )  A Tb 
2

  fT b 

For normalized average power = 1,

A=1

The polar signal has the disadvantage

of having a large PSD near DC.

On the other hand, polar signals are

relatively easy to generate, although
positive and negative power supplies
are required. The probability of bit
error performance is superior to that
of other signaling methods.
 Unipolar RZ Signaling
1 2
2 A k 0
Autocorrelation Runipolar k    Pulse width:  =
function: 1 Tb/2
 A2 k 0
4
2
A Tb  sin fTb / 2 
2
 1 
PSD: unipolar RZ ( f )    1   ( f )
16  fTb / 2   Tb 
For normalized average power = 1, A = 2

The first null bandwidth is twice that for

unipolar or polar NRZ, since the pulse width is
half as wide.There is a discrete (impulse) term
at f=R. consequently this periodic component
can be used for recovery of the clock signal.

One disadvantage of this scheme is that it

requires 3dB more signal power than the polar
signaling for the same probability of bit error.
The spectrum is not negligible for frequencies
near DC
 Bipolar RZ Signaling
Autocorrelation Pulse width:  =
function: Tb/2
 1 2
 2A k 0
PSD:

 1 2
Runipolar k    A k 1 2
A Tb  sin fTb / 2 
2
 4 bipolar RZ ( f )    sin 2 fTb 
 4  fTb / 2 
 0 k 1

A=2 for a normalized average power of
unity.

Bipolar signaling has a spectral null at DC,

so ac coupled circuits may be used in the
transmission path

Additional notes please refer to Couch 2007

page 168.
Manchester NRZ Signaling
Autocorrelation Pulse Shape:  t  Tb / 4   t  Tb / 4 
function: f (t )      
 Tb / 2   Tb / 2 
 A2 k 0
R polar k   
0 k 0 PSD: 2
 sin fTb / 2 
Pulse width:  = Manchester ( f )  A Tb 
2
 sin 2 fTb / 2 
Tb/2  fTb / 2 

A=1 for a normalized average power of

unity.

The null bandwidth of the Manchester

format is twice that of the bipolar
bandwidth.

However, the Manchester code has a zero

DC level on a bit-by-bit basis. Moreover, a
string of zeroes will not cause a loss of
clocking signal.
 Power Spectra for Multilevel Polar NRZ Signals
2
 sin  fT b 
 polar NRZ ( f )  K  
  fT b 
R
Bnull 


Multi-level signaling, where L>2, is used to

reduce the bandwidth of a digital signal
compared with the bandwidth required for
binary signaling.

In practice, filtered multilevel signals are

often used to modulate a carrier for the
transmission of digital information over a
communication channel. This provides a
relatively narrowband digital signal.
Spectral Efficiency
 The spectral efficiency of a digital signal is given by the number of bits
per second of data that can be supported by each hertz of bandwidth.
R
  bits / s  / Hz
B
 Maximum possible efficiency is limited by channel noise if error is
small and is given by Shannon’s channel capacity formula: C  2B log2 M

C  S
 max   log2 1  
B  N
 Multilevel polar NRZ

   bits / s  / Hz
Spectral Efficiencies of Line Codes
CODE TYPE FIRST NULL SPECTRAL EFFICIENCY
BANDWIDTH (Hz) =R/B
Unipolar NRZ R 1
Polar NRZ R 1
Unipolar RZ 2R 0.5
Bipolar RZ R 1
Manchester NRZ 2R 0.5
Multilevel polar NRZ R/ 