Part I.

Introduction
Benjamin Alvarez Dillena Jr., Ed.D.
Statistics
• Statistics is a science that deals with collection,
presentation, analysis and interpretation of data.
• Statistics is fundamentally concerned with the
understanding of structures of data. Methods range
from simple to a more systematic procedures in
describing and summarizing data.
Statistics
These methods enable us to develop a way of
thinking.
This helps us:
 Describe or characterized person, objects,
situation and phenomena with some reliability.
 Make statement and comparison in an objective
manner.
 Make evidence-based decisions.
Steps in Statistical Investigation
1. Identification of the problem.
2. Collection of Data it refers to the different methods
and techniques of gathering the data.
3. Presentation of Data it refers to the tabulation and
organization of data in tables, graphs and chart.
4. Analysis of Data it is the process of deriving relevant
information from the gathered data through the
different statistical tools.
5. Interpretation of Data it refers to the task of
drawing conclusions or inferences from the analyzed
data.
Descriptive Statistics VS
Inferential Statistics
• Population is the entirely of the group including
all the members that forma a set of data.
• Sample contains a few members of the population.
Samples were taken to represent the
characteristics or traits of the population

• Data It refers to any information concerning to a

population or sample.
• Variable It is the attribute of interest observable of
each entity in the universe.
Descriptive Statistics VS
Inferential Statistics
Descriptive Statistics used to say something or
describe a set information collected. It can also be
represented with graphs.
Common tools are:
• Measures of Central Tendency
• Measures of Variability
Example:
In a Math test, 32 out of 40 students were able to
receive a passing mark.
The average score of the class is 82 out of 100.
Descriptive Statistics VS
Inferential Statistics
Inferential Statistics used to say something about a
larger group (population) using information
collected from a small part that population (sample).
Common tools are:
• Hypothesis Testing
• Regression Analysis
Example:
In a sample survey conducted, 65% of Filipino
Generation Z prefer drink milk tea than coffee
while 34% of Filipino Millennial prefer to drink
milk tea than coffee.
Qualitative & Quantitative
Variables
Qualitative Variables describe a certain type of
information without using numbers.
Example:
Color
Taste
Occupation
Gender
Preference to eating vegetables
Qualitative & Quantitative
Variables
Quantitative Variables measure or identity an
information using numeric scale.
Example: Quantitative Variables

1 Height C can be classified as:
 Discrete Variable

2 Number of sibling(s) D
whose values can be

3 Speed of car C counted using integral
Temperature C
4 values.

5 Number of students in a  Continuous Variable
class D can assume any
6 Amount of shirt drawer D numerical value over

an interval or intervals
Measurement Scales
Measurement is the process of assigning value to a
variable.
Four Levels of Scale of Measurement:

Ratio
Numerical
Interval
Ordinal Categorical
Nominal
Level of Measurement
Nominal Level
Observations can be named without particular order
or ranking imposed on the data. Words, letters, and
even numbers are used to classify the data.
Examples:
Gender Types of Electric Consumption
M – Male 1 – Residential
F – Female 2 – Commercial
3 – Industrial
4 – Government
Level of Measurement
Ordinal Level
Describe ranking or order. The difference or ratio
between two rankings may not always the same.
Examples:
Competition Placement Level of Satisfaction
1 – Champion 1 – Very Satisfied
2 – 1st Runner-up 2 – Satisfied
3 – 2nd Runner-up 3 – Unsatisfied
4 – Very Unsatisfied
4 – 3 Runner-up
rd
Level of Measurement
Interval Level
Indicates an actual (numerical). The order and the
difference between the variables can be known. Its
limitation is it has no “true zero”.
Examples:
Temperature
60C
20C
10C
–15C
Level of Measurement
Ratio Level
It has the same properties as the interval level. The
order and the difference can be described.
Additionally, it has a true zero and the ratio between
two points has a meaning.
Examples: Mass
80 kg
40 kg
10 kg
0 kg
Summary
Level of Named Order Difference True Zero
Measurement
Nominal

Categorical
Ordinal

Interval

RatioNumerical
Reminders!
Type of Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio
Descriptive
Statistics
Mode, counts,
frequency
Median,
minimum,
maximum, range
Mean, variance,
standard
deviation
Methods of Sampling
Sampling
- It is technique of drawing sample from the population.
- Sampling is being applied once the entire element of
the population is not available or the population size is
too large.
- In statistics, population is commonly studied through
the sample taken from it.
- Population is the entirely of the group including all the
members that forms a set of data.
- Sample contains a few members of the population.
They are taken to represent the characteristics or
traits of the whole population.
Sampling Techniques
Probability Sampling
In probability sampling, every member of the
population has the chance of being selected. It
involves principle or randomization or chance.
Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
Also known as fish bowl method
Digital application
Unbiased sampling
Difference between the
Systematic Sampling Simple Random Sampling
Pattern and
Systematics Sampling
Randomization
PROCESS &
ORDER
Probability Sampling
Stratified Sampling
 In this method, the population is subdivided into at least
two different subpopulations (or strata) that share the
same characteristics and then the elements of the
sample are drawn from its stratum proportionately
Cluster Sampling
 Population under this technique is being divided into
sections (or clusters), randomly select some of these
clusters as the member of the sample size. Unlike with
stratified sampling, all elements of the chosen clusters
are automatically the member of the sample in this
technique.
Non-Probability Sampling
In non-probability sampling , not every member of
the population has the equal chance of being
selected. It can rely on the subjective judgment of
the researcher.
 Convenience Sampling
 Purposive Sampling
 Quota Sampling
 Snowball Sampling
Non-Probability Sampling
Convenience Sampling
selecting a sample based on the availability of the
member and/or proximity to the researcher
Also known as accidental, opportunity, or grab
sampling
Purposive Sampling
Samples are chosen based on the goals of the study.
They may be chosen based on their knowledge of
the study being conducted or if they satisfy the
traits or conditions set by the researcher.
Non-Probability Sampling
Quota Sampling
Proportion of the groups in the population were
considered in the number and selection of the
respondents.
Snowball Sampling
Participants in the
study were tasked
to recruit other
members for the
study.
 Methods of Collection of Data
1. Direct or Interview Method
- It is a method where there is person-to-person
interaction, an exchange of idea between the one
soliciting information (interviewer) and the one that
is supplying the information (interviewee).
- This method is applicable to a small sample or
population size.
 Methods of Collection of Data
2. Indirect or Questionnaire Method
- This method is also known as paper and pencil
method; an alternative to interview method and
utilized questionnaire (a list of question intended to
elicit answer to a given problem).
3. Registration Method
- a documentary analysis, wherein data are gathered
from fact or information on file, examples are births,
death, licenses, land titles, company registration etc.
 Methods of Collection of Data
4. Observation Method
- a scientific method of gathering data that makes
possible use of all senses to measure or to obtain
results from the subject of the study.
5. Experiment Method
- a method of collection of data wherein effort is
made to control the factors affecting the variable
in question.
- It examines the cause and effect of certain
phenomena.
Determination of Sample Size
 Margin of Error
Determine how much higher or lower than the
population mean you are willing to let your sample
mean fall.

± 𝟓%  𝒐𝒓 𝟎 . 𝟎𝟓
For example a researcher finds, that 70% of the students
selected the modular learning approach with a margin
or error of plus, minus 5 percent.
Then, the researcher can conclude that between 65%
and 75% of the students in the population have selected
modular learning approach.
 Confidence Level or Risk Level

How confident do you want to be that the actual mean

falls within your confidence interval?

Example

The key idea for confidence level tells the researcher

that if the population is repeatedly sampled the average
value of the attribute obtained by those samples is equal
to the true population value.
 Degree of Variability
How much variance do you expect in your response?

𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒑=𝟎 . 𝟓

The degree of variability in the attributes being measured
refers to the distribution of attributes in the population.
The more heterogeneous a population, the larger the
sample size required to obtain a given level of precision.
The less variable (more homogeneous) a population, the
smaller the sample size.
Note that a proportion of 50% indicates a greater level of variability than either 20% or 80%.
This is because 20% and 80% indicate that a large majority do not or do, respectively, have
the attribute of interest. Because a proportion of 0.5 indicates the maximum variability in a
population, it is often used in determining a more conservative sample size, that is, the
sample size may be larger than if the true variability of the population attribute were used
Determination of Sample Size
 By Percentage
Generally, percentage is arbitrary in nature, since it is
based on the notion of the researcher of what
percentage of the population is to be considered.
However, this method suggests that for a very large
population, 10% is of the total elements is to be
considered and at least 20% of the population if it’s
small.
Determination of Sample Size
By Slovin’s Formula
This is used to compute for the sample size in a study
given the total population and margin of error.

Where:

√
If e is unknown?
𝑁 −𝑛
𝑒=
𝑁𝑛
(The probability of Committing an error in selecting the
sample size, which is usually range from 1% to 10%.)
Determination of Sample Size
Example No. 1
How many samples must be obtained from 1000
students if 5% margin of error is used?
Given: N = 1000 students
e = 5% or 0.05
Solution:
1 000
𝑛=
1+2.0 5
1 000 1 000
𝑛= 2 𝑛=
1+(1 000)(0.0 5) 3.0 5
𝑛=
1 000 𝑛=285.71
1+(1 000)(0.00 25)
Determination of Sample Size
Example No. 2
A student wants to conduct a research in his school. If
the school has a total number of students of 4,800, solve
for the sample size needed using 5% margin of error.
Given: N = 4,800 students 4,800
e = 5% or 0.05 𝑛=
1+(4,800)(0.00 25)
Solution: 4,800
𝑛=
1+12
4,800
4,800 𝑛=
𝑛= 2
13
1+(4,800)(0.0 5) 𝑛=369.23
Determination of Sample Size
Cochran’s Formula
𝑍 2 𝑝𝑞
𝑛𝑜 = 2
𝑒

)
•
(q=1-p, if p is given, p is variation, q=1-p)
• e
Determination of Sample Size
Cochran’s Formula
• Suppose we are doing a study on the inhabitants of a large town, and want
to find out how many households serve breakfast in the mornings. We
don’t have much information on the subject to begin with, so we’re going
to assume that half of the families serve breakfast: this gives us maximum
variability. So p = 0.5. Now let’s say we want 95% confidence, and at least
5 percent—plus or minus—precision. A 95 % confidence level gives us Z
values of 1.96, per the normal tables, so we get
2
𝑍 𝑝𝑞 2
( 1.96 ) (0.5)(0.5)
𝑛𝑜 = 2
𝑛𝑜 = 2
385
𝑒 ( 0.05)
• So a random sample of 385 households in our target population should be
enough to give us the confidence levels we need.
Determination of Sample Size
Modification for the Cochran Formula for Sample
Size Calculation In Smaller Populations
𝑛0 If population is known, use
𝑛=
(𝑛0 − 1 ) the Modification of
1+
𝑁 Cochran’s Formula
Here n0 is Cochran’s sample size recommendation, N is the population size, and
n is the new, adjusted sample size. In our earlier example, if there were just 1000
households in the target population, we would calculate

So for this smaller population, all we need are 278 households in our sample; a
substantially smaller sample size.
How to use Excel Sampling to find a
Sample: Steps
Step 1: Enter your data items into Excel. You can enter your data into rows
or columns. Ensure the rows and columns are even; for example, enter data
into column A to cell 4 and column E to cell 4.
Step 2: Click “Data” and then click “Data Analysis.” If you don’t see Data
Analysis on your toolbar, load the Data Analysis Toolpak.
Step 3: Click “Sampling” and then click “OK.”
Step 4: Click in the Input Range box and then select your entire data set.
Step 5: Click either “Periodic Sampling” or “Random Sampling.” If you
choose periodic, enter the nth number (i.e. every 5) and if you choose
random sampling, enter the sample size.
Step 6: Choose an output range. For example, click the “New Worksheet”
button and Excel will return the sample in a new worksheet.
Step 7: Click “OK.”
Step 1: Enter your data items into Excel. You
can enter your data into rows or columns.
Ensure the rows and columns are even; for
example, enter data into column A to cell 10
and column E to cell 10.
Step 2: Click “Data” and then click “Data
Analysis.” If you don’t see Data Analysis on
your toolbar, load the Data Analysis
Toolpak.
Step 3: Click “Sampling” and then click “OK.”
Step 4: Click in the Input Range box and
then select your entire data set.
Reminders:
Select Label, if you selected the heading
Step 4: Click in the Input Range box and
then select your entire data set.
Step 5:
Click either “Periodic Sampling” or “Random
Sampling.” If you choose periodic, enter the
nth number (i.e. every 5) and if you choose
random sampling, enter the sample size.
Step 6: Choose an output range. For
example, click the “New Worksheet” button
and Excel will return the sample in a new
worksheet.
Step 7: Click “OK
Determination of Sample Size
Example No. 3
Determine the number of students that must be taken
from each colleges of a certain university, if 5% margin of
error is to be considered.

College No. of Students Solution Sample

Enrolled Size
A 2,275
B 1,280
C 3,485
D 1,566
E 2,489
TOTAL
11,095
Determination of Sample Size
Example No. 3
Given:
N = 11,095
e = 5% or 0.05
Solution:
11,095
𝑛=
1+27.7375
11,095 11,095
𝑛= 2 𝑛=
1+(11,095)( 0.05) 28.7375
11,095 𝑛=386.0838
𝑛=
1+(11,095)( 0.0025)
𝑛=3 87 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
Determination of Sample Size
Example No. 4
Determine the number of students that must be taken
from each colleges of a certain university, if 5% margin of
error is to be considered.

College No. of Students Solution Sample

Enrolled Size
A 2,275
B 1,280 79.35 80
C 3,485 44.65 45
D 1,566 121.56 122
E 2,489 54.62 55
TOTAL 86.82 87
11,095 389