Chemistry

The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change

Ninth Edition

Martin S. Silberberg and Patricia G.

Amateis

© 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.
 Chapter 3: Stoichiometry of Formulas
and Equations
3.1 The Mole.
3.2 Determining the Formula of an Unknown
Compound.
3.3 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations.
3.4 Calculating Quantities of Reactant and Product.

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 The Mole
• The mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that contains the same
number of entities as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12.

The term “entities” refers to atoms, ions, molecules, formula units, or

electrons – in fact, any type of particle.

• One mole (1 mol) contains 6.022×1023 entities (to four

significant figures).
This number is called Avogadro’s number.

• The mass in atomic mass units (amu) of one atom of an element or

one molecule or formula unit of a compound is the same
numerically as the mass in grams of 1 mole of the substance.

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 One Mole of Some Familiar
Substances

Figure 3.1

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 Molar Mass 1

The molar mass (M) of a substance is the mass of a mole of its

entities (atoms, molecules, or formula units).
For monatomic elements, the molar mass is the same as the
atomic mass in grams per mole. The atomic mass is simply read
from the Periodic Table.
• The molar mass of Ne = 20.18 g/mol.

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 Molar Mass 2

• For molecular elements and for compounds, the formula is

needed to determine the molar mass, which is the sum of the
molar masses of the atoms in the formula.

• The molar mass of O2 = 2 × M of O.

 2 16.00 g mol
 32.00 g mol

• The molar mass of SO2 = (1 × M of S) + (2 × M of O).

 32.06  2 16.00  g mol

 64.06 g mol
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 Chemical Formula of Glucose C6H12O6

Carbon (C) Hydrogen (H) Oxygen (O)

In the following table, read ‘102 3 ’ as 10 to the power twenty three

Atoms/molecule of 6 atoms 12 atoms 6 atoms

compound

Moles of atoms/mole 6 mol of atoms 12 mol of atoms 6 mol of atoms

of compound

Atoms/mole of 6(6.022×1023) atoms 12(6.022×1023) atoms 6(6.022×1023) atoms

compound

Mass/molecule of 6(12.01 amu) 12(1.008 amu) 6(16.00 amu) = 96.00

compound = 72.06 amu = 12.10 amu a mu

Mass/mole of 72.06 g 12.10 g 96.00 g

compound

Table 3.1
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 Interconverting Moles, Mass, and
Number of Chemical Entities
no. of grams
Mass  g   amount  mol  
1 mol

1 mol
Amount  mol   mass  g  
no. of grams

6.022  1023 entities

No. of entities  amount  mol  
1 mol

1 mol
Amount  mol   no. of entities 
6.022 1023 entities

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 Mass-mole-number Relationships for
Elements

Figure 3.2
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 Sample Problem 3.1: Problem, Plan and
Solution
Converting Between Mass and Amount of
an Element
• PROBLEM: Silver (Ag) is used in
jewelry and tableware but no longer in
U.S. coins. How many grams of Ag are in
0.0342 mol of Ag?
• PLAN: We multiply the number of moles
by the molar mass of Ag.
• SOLUTION:

0.0342 mol Ag 
107.9 g Ag 
 3.69 g Ag
1 mol Ag 
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 Sample Problem 3.2: Problem, Plan

Converting Between Number of Entities

and Amount of an Element
• PROBLEM: Gallium (Ga) is a key
element in solar panels, calculators and
other light-sensitive electronic devices.
How many Ga atoms are in 2.85 103
mol of gallium?
• PLAN: To convert mol of Ga to number
of Ga atoms we multiply amount (mol)
by Avogadro’s number.

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 Sample Problem 3.2: Solution

SOLUTION:
23
3 6.022  10 Ga atoms
2.85 10 mol Ga atoms 
1 mol Ga atoms
= 1.72  1021 Ga atoms

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 Sample Problem 3.3: Problem and Plan

Converting Between Number of Entities and

Mass of an Element
• PROBLEM: Iron (Fe) is the main
component of steel and is therefore the most
important metal in society; it is also essential
in the body. How many Fe atoms are in
95.8 g of Fe?
• PLAN: The number of atoms cannot be
calculated directly from the mass. We must
first convert to mass to moles by dividing by
the molar mass of Fe; then we multiply the
amount in moles by Avogadro’s number.

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 Sample Problem 3.3: Solution

SOLUTION:

1 mol Fe
95.8 g Fe   1.72 mol Fe
55.85 g Fe

6.022 1023 atoms Fe

 1.72 mol Fe   1.04×1024 atoms Fe
1 mol Fe

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 Amount-Mass-Number Relationship

Figure 3.3
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 Sample Problem 3.4: Problem and Plan

Converting Between Number of Entities and Mass of a Compound

• PROBLEM: Ammonium carbonate, a white solid that decomposes
on warming, is an component of baking powder, fire extinguishers,
and smelling salts.
(a) How many formula units are in 41.6 g of ammonium
carbonate?
(b) How many O atoms are in this sample?
(c) How many H atoms are in this sample?

• PLAN: (a) Write the formula for the compound and calculate its
molar mass. Divide the given mass by the molar mass to calculate
the amount in moles; multiply by Avogadro’s number to calculate
the number of formula units.
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 Sample Problem 3.4: Plan and Solution

(b) and (c) The number of O and H atoms can be determined by

multiplying the number of formula units by the number of O or H
atoms in 1 formula unit.
SOLUTION: (NH4)2CO3 is the formula for ammonium carbonate.

M   2  M of N   8  M of H   1 M of C   3  M of O 

  2  14.01 g / mol   8 1.008 g / mol 

 112.01 g / mol   3 16.00 g / mol 

= 96.09 g / mol

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 Sample Problem 3.4: Solution
1 mol  NH 4 2 CO 3
41.6 g  NH 4 2 CO 3   0.433 mol  NH 4 2 CO 3
96.09 g  NH 4 2 CO 3

6.022 1023 formula units  NH 4 2 CO 3

0.433 mol  NH 4 2 CO 3 
1 mol  NH 4 2 CO 3
= 2.61×1023 formula units  NH 4 2 CO 3

3 O atoms
2.61 1023 formula units  NH 4 2 CO 3 
1 formula unit  NH 4 2 CO3
= 7.83×1023 O atoms
8 H atoms
2.61 1023 formula units  NH 4 2 CO 3 
1 formula unit  NH 4 2 CO3
= 2.09×1024 H atoms
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 Mass Percent from the Chemical
Formula
• Mass% of element X =
atoms of X in formula × atomic mass of X amu 
 100%
molecular  or formula  mass of compound amu 

• Mass% of element X =
moles of X in formula × molar mass of X g/mol 
100%
mass  g  of 1 mol of compound

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 Sample Problem 3.5: Problem and Plan

Calculating the Mass Percent of Each Element in a Compound

from the Formula
• PROBLEM: The effectiveness of fertilizers depends upon their
nitrogen content. Ammonium nitrate is a common fertilizer. What is
the mass percent of each element in ammonium nitrate?
• PLAN: We know the relative amounts (mol) of the elements from
the formula and we have to find the mass % of each element. We
multiply the amount of each by its molar mass to find its mass.
Dividing each mass by the mass of 1 mol of ammonium nitrate
gives the mass fraction of each element, and multiplying by 100
gives each mass %. The calculation steps for any element (X) are
shown in the road map.

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 Sample Problem 3.5: Plan

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 Sample Problem 3.5: Solution 1

• SOLUTION: The formula is NH4NO3 (see Table 2.5). In 1 mol of

NH4NO3 there are 2 mol of N, 4 mol of H, and 3 mol of O.
• Converting amount (mol) of N to mass (g): We have 2 mol of N in
1 mol of NH4NO3; so
14.01 g N
Mass  g  of N  2 mol N   28.02 g N
1 mol N

• Calculating the mass of 1 mol of NH4NO3:

M   2  M of N    4  M of H   3  M of O 
  2  14.01 g / mol N    4  1.008 g / mol H   3 16.00 g / mol O 
 80.05g / mol NH 4 NO3

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 Sample Problem 3.5: Solution 2

• Finding the mass fraction of N in NH4NO3:

total mass of N 28.02 g N
Mass fraction of N  
Mass of 1 mol NH 4 NO3 80.05 g NH 4 NO3
 0.3500

• Calculating Changing to mass %: Mass % of N = mass fraction of

N × 100 = 0.3500 × 100 = 35.00 mass % N
• Combining the steps for each of the other elements in NH4NO3:
mol H  M of H
Mass % of H  ×100
Mass of 1 mol NH 4 NO3
1.008 g H
4 mol H 
1 mol H
  100  5.037 mass % H
80.05 g NH 4 NO3
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 Sample Problem 3.5: Solution 3

SOLUTION (continued):
Mol O  M of O
Mass % of O  100
Mass of 1 mol NH 4 NO3
16.00 g O
3 mol O 
1 mol O
 100
80.05 g NH 4 NO3

 59.96 mass  O

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 Mass Fraction and the Mass of an
Element
• Mass fraction can also be used to calculate the mass of a
particular element in any mass of a compound.
• Mass of any element in sample =
mass of element in 1 mol of compound
mass of compound 
mass of 1 mol of compound

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 Sample Problem 3.6: Problem and Plan

Calculating the Mass of an Element in a Compound

• PROBLEM: Use the information from Sample Problem 3.5
to determine the mass (g) of nitrogen in 650. g of ammonium
nitrate.
• PLAN: To find the mass of N in the sample of ammonium
nitrate, we multiply the mass of the sample by the mass of
2 mol of N divided by the mass of 1 mol of ammonium nitrate
(the mass fraction of N in ammonium nitrate).

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 Sample Problem 3.6: Solution

SOLUTION: Finding the mass of N in a given mass of

ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3:
2 mol×M of N  g/mol 
Mass  g  of N = mass g  of NH 4 NO3 ×
mass  g  of 1 mol of NH 4 NO3

 28.02 g N
 650. g NH 4 NO3    228 g N
80.05 g NH 4 NO3

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 Empirical and Molecular Formulas

• The empirical formula is the simplest formula for a compound

that agrees with the elemental analysis. It shows the lowest whole
number of moles and gives the relative number of atoms of each
element present.
The empirical formula for hydrogen peroxide is H O.

• The molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms of each

element in a molecule of the compound.
The molecular formula for hydrogen peroxide is H2O2.

• The structural formula shows the relative placement and

connections of atoms in the molecule.
The structural formula for hydrogen peroxide is H―O―O―H.

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 Sample Problem 3.7: Problem and Plan

Determining an Empirical Formula

from Masses of Elements
• PROBLEM: A sample of an
unknown compound contains
5.08 g of zinc, 1.60 g of phosphorus,
and 3.32 g of oxygen. What is its
empirical formula?
• PLAN: Divide each mass by the
element’s molar mass to obtain moles.
Divide by the lowest mol amount to
find the relative mol ratios (empirical
formula).

© McGraw Hill
 Sample Problem 3.7: Solution 1

SOLUTION: Finding amount (mol) of each element:

1 mol Zn
Mol of Zn  5.08 g Zn   0.0777 mol Zn
65.38 g Zn

Similarly, we have 0.0517 mol P and 0.208 mol O.

Using the numbers of moles of each element given, we write the
preliminary formula Zn0.0777P0.0517O0.208.

Next we divide each fraction by the smallest one; in this case 0.0517:

Zn 0.0777 P0.0517 O 0.208

0.0517 0.0517 0.0517

This gives Zn1.5 P1.0O 4.0

© McGraw Hill
 Sample Problem 3.7: Solution 2

We convert to whole numbers by multiplying by the smallest

integer that gives whole numbers; in this case 2:

Zn 1.52 P1.02O 4.02

This gives us the empirical formula Zn3P2O8

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 Determining the Molecular Formula
• The molecular formula gives the actual numbers of moles of
each element present in 1 mol of compound.
• The molecular formula is a whole-number multiple of the
empirical formula.

compound molar mass  g/mol 

Whole number multiple =
empirical formula mass  g/mol 

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 Sample Problem 3.8: Problem and Plan

Determining a Molecular Formula from Elemental Analysis and

Molar Mass
• PROBLEM: During excessive physical activity, lactic acid
(M = 90.08 g/mol) forms in muscle tissue and is responsible for
muscle soreness. Elemental analysis shows that this compound has
40.0 mass % C, 6.71 mass % H, and 53.3 mass % O.

(a) Determine the empirical formula of lactic acid.

(b) Determine the molecular formula.

• PLAN: (a) Assume 100 g of sample and express each mass% as a

number of grams. Construct the empirical formula as in Sample
Problem 3.7. (b) Divide the given molar mass by the empirical
formula mass to find the multiplier.
© McGraw Hill
 Sample Problem 3.8 - Solution

SOLUTION:
1 mol C 1 mol H
a  40.0 g C   3.33 mol C 6.71 g H   6.66 mol H
12.01 g C 1.008 g H
1 mol O
53.3 g O   3.33 mol O
16.00 g O

Empirical formula = C3.33H 6.66O 3.33  C 3.33 H 6.66 O 3.33  CH 2O

3.33 3.33 3.33

molar mass of lactic acid 90.08 g / mol

 3
mass of CH 2O 30.03 g / mol

C1×3H 2×3O1×3 = C3 H 6O 3 is the molecular formula

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 Combustion Apparatus

Combustion analysis is used to measure the amounts of carbon

and hydrogen in a combustible organic compound.

Figure 3.4
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 Sample Problem 3.9: Problem and Plan

Determining a Molecular Formula from Combustion Analysis

• PROBLEM: When a 1.000 g sample of vitamin C
(M = 176.12 g/mol) is placed in a combustion chamber and burned,
the following data are obtained:
mass of CO2 absorber after combustion = 85.35 g
mass of CO2 absorber before combustion = 83.85 g
mass of H2O absorber after combustion = 37.96 g
mass of H2O absorber before combustion = 37.55 g
What is the molecular formula of vitamin C?
• PLAN: The masses of CO2 and H2O produced will give us the
masses of C and H present in the original sample. From this we can
determine the mass of O.
© McGraw Hill
 Sample Problem 3.9: Solution 1

SOLUTION: Mass of CO2: 85.35 g − 83.85 g = 1.50 g

12.01 g C
1.50 g CO 2   0.409 g C
44.01 g CO 2

Mass of H 2 O : 37.96 g  37.55 g  0.41 g

2.016 g H
0.41 g H 2O   0.046 g H
18.02 g H 2 O
mass of O = mass of vitamin C   mass of C + mass of H 

 1.000 g   0.409  0.046  g  0.545 g O

© McGraw Hill
 Sample Problem 3.9: Solution 2

Convert mass to moles:

0.409 g C 0.046 g H
 0.0341 mol C  0.046 mol H
12.01 g / mol C 1.008 g / mol H
0.545 g O
 0.0341 mol O
16.00 g/ mol O

Divide by smallest to get the preliminary formula:

0.034 0.046 0.0341
C 1 H  1.3 O 1
0.0341 0.0341 0.0341
C1H1.3O1  C3H 3.9 O3  C3 H 4 O3

Divide molar mass by mass of empirical formula:

176.12 g / mol
 2.000 C 22 H42C32   C6 H 8O6
88.06 g / mol
© McGraw Hill
 Table 3.2 Compounds with Empirical
Formula CH2O
Whole-Number
Name Molecular Formula M (g/mol) Use or Function
Multiple
Formaldehyde C H2 O 1   30.03 Disinfectant; biological preservative

C2H4O2   Acetate polymers; vinegar

Acetic acid 2   60.05
(5% solution)

C3H6O3   Causes milk to sour; forms in

Lactic acid 3   90.08
muscles during exercise
Erythrose C4H8O4   4 120.10 Forms during sugar metabolism
Component of many nucleic acids
Ribose C5H10O5 5 150.13 and vitamin B2
Glucose C6H12O6 6 180.16 Major nutrient for energy in cells

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 Isomers: Different Compounds with the
Same Molecular Formula
Table 3.3 Two Pairs of Constitutional Isomers

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 Chemical Equations

A chemical equation uses formulas to express the identities and

quantities of substances involved in a physical or chemical
change.

Figure 3.6
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 Features of Chemical Equations

The equation must be balanced; the same number and type of

each atom must appear on both sides.

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 Balancing a Chemical Equation

1. Translating the statement: we first translate the chemical

statement into a “skeleton” equation.
2. Balancing the atoms: we match the numbers of each type of
atom on the left and the right of the yield arrow.
3. Adjusting the coefficients: in most cases, the smallest
whole-number coefficients are preferred.
4. Checking: after balancing and adjusting the coefficients, we
always check that the equation is balanced:
5. Specifying the states of matter: the final equation also
indicates the physical state of each substance or whether it is
dissolved in water.

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 A Three-level View of a Reaction

Figure 3.7
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 Sample Problem 3.10: Problem and
Solution
Balancing a Chemical Equation
• PROBLEM: Within the cylinders of a car’s engine, the
hydrocarbon octane (C8H18), one of many components of gasoline,
mixes with oxygen from the air and burns to form carbon dioxide
and water vapor. Write a balanced equation for this reaction.
• SOLUTION:
C8 H18  O2  CO 2  H 2O
25
1C8 H18  O 2  8CO 2  9H 2O
2
2C8 H18  25O 2  16CO 2  18H 2 O
2C8 H18 l   25O 2  g   16CO 2  g   18H 2 O  g 
© McGraw Hill
 Visualizing a Reaction with a Molecular Scene
Combustion of Octane

© McGraw Hill
 Sample Problem 3.11: Problem and Plan

Balancing an Equation from a Molecular Scene

• PROBLEM: The following molecular scenes depict an important
reaction in nitrogen chemistry. The blue spheres represent nitrogen
while the red spheres represent oxygen. Write a balanced equation
for this reaction.

• PLAN: Determine the formulas of the reactants and products from

their composition. Arrange this information in the correct equation
format and balance correctly, including the states of matter.

© McGraw Hill
 Sample Problem 3.11: Solution

• SOLUTION: The reactant circle shows only one type of

molecule, composed of 2 N and 5 O atoms. The formula is
thus N2O5. There are 4 N2O5 molecules depicted.
• The product circle shows two types of molecule; one has 1 N
and 2 O atoms while the other has 2 O atoms. The products
are NO2 and O2. There are 8 NO2 molecules and 2 O2
molecules shown.
• The reaction depicted is 4N 2O 5 →8NO 2 + 2O 2 .
• Writing the equation with the smallest whole-number
coefficients and states of matter included;
2N 2O 5  g  → 4NO 2  g  + O 2  g 
© McGraw Hill
 Stoichiometric Calculations

• In a balanced equation, the amounts (mol) of substances are

stoichiometrically equivalent to each other.
• A specific amount of one substance is formed from, produces,
or reacts with a specific amount of the other.
• The quantitative relationships are expressed as
stoichiometrically equivalent molar ratios that we use as
conversion factors to calculate the amounts.

© McGraw Hill
 Table 3.4 Information Contained in a
Balanced Equation
Viewed in Reactants Products
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g)  3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
Terms of
1 molecule C3H8  + 5
Molecules  3 molecules CO2 + 4 molecules H2O
molecules O2
Amount (mol) 1 mol C3H8 + 5 mol O2  3 mol CO2  + 4 mol H2O
44.09 amu C3H8 + 160.00
Mass (amu)  132.03 amu CO2 + 72.06 amu H2O
amu O2
Mass (g) 44.09 g C3H8 + 160.00 g O2  132.03 g CO2 + 72.06 g H2O
Total mass (g)    204.09 g                               204.09 g               

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 Amount-mass-number
Relationships

Figure 3.8
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 Sample Problem 3.12: Problem and
Plan
Calculating Quantities of Reactants and Products: Amount (mol)
to Amount (mol) and to Mass (g)
• PROBLEM: Copper is obtained from copper(I) sulfide by roasting
it in the presence of oxygen gas to form powdered copper(I) oxide
and gaseous sulfur dioxide. (a) How many moles of oxygen are
required to roast 10.0 mol of copper(I) sulfide? (b) How many
grams of sulfur dioxide form when
10.0 mol of copper(I) sulfide reacts?
• PLAN: Write the balanced equation. (a) The balanced equation
shows that 3 mol of O2 is needed to roast 2 mol of Cu2S so the
conversion factor is 3 mol O2/2 mol Cu2S. (b) Find the moles of S
O2 with the molar ratio of 2 mol SO2/2 mol Cu2S and the multiply
moles by molar mass to obtain the mass of SO2.
© McGraw Hill
 Sample Problem 3.12: Plan

© McGraw Hill
 Sample Problem 3.12: Solution

SOLUTION:
2Cu 2S  s   3O 2  g   2Cu 2O  s   2SO 2  g 

3 mol O 2
a  10.00 mol Cu 2S   15.0 mol O 2
2 mol Cu 2S

2 mol SO 2 64.06 g SO 2
b  10.00 mol Cu 2S   = 641 g SO 2
2 mol Cu 2S 1 mol SO 2

© McGraw Hill
 Sample Problem 3.13: Problem and
Plan
Calculating Quantities of Reactants and
Products: Mass to Mass
• PROBLEM: During the roasting of
copper(I) sulfide, how many kilograms of
oxygen are required to form 2.86 kg of
copper(I) oxide?
• PLAN: We convert the mass of Cu2O
from kg to g and then to amount (mol).
Then, we use the molar ratio (3 mol O2/2
mol Cu2O) to find the amount (mol) of O2
required. Finally, we convert the amount
of O2 to g and then kg.

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 Sample Problem 3.13: Solution

SOLUTION:
2Cu 2S  s   3O 2  g   2Cu 2O  s   2SO 2  g 

103 1 mol Cu 2 O
2.86 kg Cu 2O  ×  20.0 mol Cu 2O
1 kg 143.10 g Cu 2O

3 mol O2 32.00 g O 2 1 kg
20.0 mol Cu 2 O  × × 3
2 mol Cu 2O 1 mol O 2 10 g

= 0.960 kg O 2

© McGraw Hill
 Reactions in Sequence

For stoichiometric purposes, when the same substance forms in

one reaction and reacts in the next (it is common to both
reactions), we eliminate that substance in an overall (net)
equation. The steps in writing the overall equation are:
1. Write the sequence of balanced equations.
2. Adjust the equations arithmetically to cancel the common
substance(s).
3. Add the adjusted equations together to obtain the overall
balanced equation.

© McGraw Hill
 Sample Problem 3.14: Problem and
Plan
Writing an Overall Equation for a Reaction Sequence
• PROBLEM: Roasting is the first step in extracting copper
from chalcocite, the ore used in the previous problem. In the
next step, copper(I) oxide reacts with powdered carbon to
yield copper metal and carbon monoxide gas. Write a
balanced overall equation for the two-step process.
• PLAN: Write individual balanced equations for each step.
Adjust the coefficients so that any common substances can be
canceled. Add the adjusted equations together to obtain the
overall equation.

© McGraw Hill
 Sample Problem 3.14: Solution

SOLUTION: Write individual balanced equations for each step:

2Cu 2S  s   3O 2  g   2Cu 2O  s   2SO 2  g  reaction 1

Cu 2 O  s   C  s   2Cu  s   CO  g  reaction 2
Double the coefficients in reaction 2 so that the 2 moles of Cu2O
formed in reaction 1 are used up in reaction 2:
2Cu 2S  s   3O 2  g   2Cu 2O  s   2SO2  g 
2Cu 2O  s   2C  s   4Cu  s   2CO  g 
Add the equations together:
2Cu 2S s  + 3O 2 g  + 2C s  → 2SO 2 g  + 4Cu s  + 2CO g 
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 Limiting Reactants

• So far we have assumed that reactants are present in the

correct amounts to react completely.
• In reality, one reactant may limit the amount of product that
can form.
• The limiting reactant will be completely used up in the
reaction.
• The reactant that is not limiting is in excess – some of this
reactant will be left over.

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 Analogy for Limiting Reactions

Figure 3.10
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 Sample Problem 3.15: Problem

Using Molecular Depictions in a Limiting-Reactant Problem

PROBLEM: Chlorine trifluoride, an extremely reactive substance, is
formed as a gas by the reaction of elemental chlorine and fluorine.
The molecular scene shows a representative portion of the reaction
mixture before the reaction starts. (Chlorine is green, and fluorine is
yellow)

(a) Find the limiting reactant.

(b) Write a reaction table for the process.
(c) Draw a representative portion of the
mixture after the reaction is complete.
(Hint: The ClF3 molecule has 1 Cl atom
bonded to 3 individual F atoms).

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 Sample Problem 3.15: Plan and
Solution (a)
• PLAN: Write a balanced chemical equation. To determine the
limiting reactant, find the number of molecules of product that
would form from the given numbers of molecules of each reactant.
Use these numbers to write a reaction table and use the reaction
table to draw the final reaction scene.
• SOLUTION: (a) The balanced equation is Cl2  g   3F2  g   2ClF3  g 

There are 3 molecules of Cl2 and 6 molecules of F2 depicted:

2 molecules ClF3
3 molecules Cl 2 × = 6 molecules ClF3
1 molecule Cl 2
2 molecules ClF3
6 molecules F2 × = 4 molecules ClF3
3 molecule F2
Since the given amount of F2 can form less product, it is the
limiting reactant.
© McGraw Hill
 Sample Problem 3.15: Solution (b)
and (c)
(b) We use the amount of F2 to determine the “change” in the reaction
table, since F2 is the limiting reactant:
Molecules Cl2 (g) + 3F2 (g) → 2ClF3 (g)
Initial 3 6 0
Change −2 −6 +4
Final 1 0 4

(c) The final reaction scene shows that all the F2 has reacted and that
there is Cl2 left over. 4 molecules of ClF3 have formed:

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 Sample Problem 3.16: Problem and
Plan
Calculating Quantities in a Limiting-Reactant Problem:
Amount to Amount
• PROBLEM: In another preparation of ClF3, 0.750 mol of Cl2
reacts with 3.00 mol of F2.
(a) Find the limiting reactant.
(b) Write a reaction table.
• PLAN: Find the limiting reactant by calculating the amount
(mol) of ClF3 that can be formed from each given amount of
reactant. Use this information to construct a reaction table.

© McGraw Hill
 Sample Problem 3.16: Solution (a)
and (b) 1

SOLUTION: (a) The balanced equation is

Cl2  g   3F2  g   2ClF3  g 

2 mol ClF3
0.750 mol Cl 2 × = 1.50 mol ClF3
1 mol Cl2
2 mol ClF3
3.00 mol F2 × = 2.00 mol ClF3
3 mol F2

Cl2 is limiting, because the given amount yields less ClF3.

(b) All the Cl2 reacts since this is the limiting reactant. For every
1 Cl2 that reacts, 3 F2 will react, so 3(0.750) or 2.25 moles of F2
reacts.
© McGraw Hill
 Sample Problem 3.16: Solution (a)
and (b) 2

Amount Cl2(g) 3F2(g) 2ClF3(g)

+ →
(mol)
Initial   0.750   3.00  0
Change −0.750 −2.25 +1.50
Final    0   0.75   1.50

© McGraw Hill
 Sample Problem 3.17: Problem

Calculating Quantities in a Limiting-Reactant Problem:

Mass to Mass
PROBLEM: A fuel mixture used in the early days of rocketry
consisted of two liquids, hydrazine (N2H4) and dinitrogen
tetroxide (N2O4), which ignite on contact to form nitrogen gas
and water vapor.
(a) How many grams of nitrogen gas form when 100. g of N 2H4 and 125 g
of N2O4 are mixed?
(b) How many grams of the excess reactant remain unreacted when the
reaction is over?
(c) Write a reaction table for this process.

© McGraw Hill
 Sample Problem 3.17: Plan 1

PLAN: (a) Find the limiting reactant by calculating the amount

(mol) of N2 product that can be formed from each given mass of
reactant. Convert the lower amount of N2 to mass. (b) Use the
molar ratio to find the mass of excess reactant that is required to
react with the given mass of limiting reactant. Subtract that
mass from the given mass of excess reactant to find the mass of
unreacted excess reactant. (c) Use this information to construct a
reaction table.

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 Sample Problem 3.17: Plan 2

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 Sample Problem 3.17: Solution (a)

SOLUTION: (a) 2N 2 H 4 l   N 2 O 4 l   3N 2  g   4H 2 O  g 
1 mol N 2 H 4
For N 2 H 4 : 100. g N 2 H 4 × = 3.12 mol N 2 H 4
32.05 g N 2 H 4
3 mol N 2
3.12 mol N 2 H 4 × = 4.68 mol N 2
2 mol N 2 H 4
1 mol N 2 O 4
For N 2O 4 : 125 g N 2 O4 × = 1.36 mol N 2 O4
92.02 g N 2 O 4
3 mol N 2
1.36 mol N 2O 4 × = 4.08 mol N 2
1 mol N 2 O4

N2O4 is limiting and only 4.08 mol of N2 can be produced:

28.02 g N 2
4.08 mol N 2 × = 114 g N 2
1 mol N 2
© McGraw Hill
 Sample Problem 3.17: Solution (b)

1 mol N 2 O 4 2 mol N 2 H 4 32.05 g N 2 H 4

 b  125 g N 2O 4× × ×
92.02 g N 2O 4 1 mol N 2O 4 1 mol N 2 H 4
=187.1 g N 2 H 4

© McGraw Hill
 Sample Problem 3.17: Solution (c)

(c) All the N2O4 reacts since it is the limiting reactant. For every
1 mole of N2O4 that reacts, 2 mols of N2H4 reacts and 3 mol of
N2 form:
2 mol N 2 H 4
1.36 mol N 2O 4 × = 2.72 mol N 2H 4 reacts
1 mol N 2 O 4

Amount (mol) 2N2H4(l) + N2O4(l)  3N2(g) + 4H2O(g)

Initial   3.12   1.36   0   0
Change −2.72 −1.6 +4.08 +5.43
Final    0.40  0   4.08   5.43

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 Stoichiometric Relationships

Figure 3.11
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 Reaction Yields

• The theoretical yield is the amount of product calculated

using the molar ratios from the balanced equation.
• The actual yield is the amount of product actually obtained.
The actual yield is usually less than the theoretical yield.

actual yield
% yield = ×100
theoretical yield

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 Effect of Side Reactions on Yield of
Main Product.

Figure 3.12
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 Sample Problem 3.18: Problem and
Plan
Calculating Percent Yield
• PROBLEM: Silicon carbide (SiC) is made
by reacting sand (silicon dioxide, SiO2) with
powdered carbon at high temperature.
Carbon monoxide is also formed. What is the
percent yield if 51.4 kg of SiC is recovered
from processing 100.0 kg of sand?
• PLAN: After writing the balanced equation,
we convert the given mass of SiO2
(100.0 kg) to amount (mol). We use the
molar ratio to find the amount of SiC formed
and convert it to mass (kg) to obtain the
theoretical yield.
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 Sample Problem 3.18: Solution

SOLUTION: SiO 2 s  +3C s   SiC s  +2CO  g 

103 1 mol SiO 2

100.0 kg SiO 2    1664 mol SiO2
1 kg 60.09 g SiO 2

mol SiO 2  mol SiC  1664 mol SiC

40.10 g SiC 1 kg
1664 mol SiC    66.73 kg SiC
1 mol SiC 1000 g

51.4 kg
100  77.0%
66.73 kg

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