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General Points
ELECTRICITY
INITIATION TO

Trainees Book
1
 Program

Day 1

 Welcome, introduction of participants and trainers

 Some definitions : Current - Voltage

 Impedance / Resistance

 The Ohms law – Association of resistance

 Power and energy

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 The magnetic field

 Alternating current - Single / Triple phase voltage 2

 Resistive, inductive, capacitive circuit

 Program

Day 2
 Active / Reactive Power

 Power factor – Capacitor bank

 The transformer principle

 Electrical distribution

 Transformation and coupling

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 Electrical Motor

 Diode – Rectification
3
 Electrical Devices - Protection
See you soon, good work...
 Contents

• The Nature of Electric Current

• The Electric Current - Electric Current Intensity Definition
• Measuring Intensity
• Preparing the Measuring Device
• Kirchhoff's Current Law
• The Concept of Voltage - Measuring Voltage
• The Concept of Resistance - Measuring Resistance
• Resistance Colour Codes
•
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The Ohms Law

• The Ohms Law: Calculating Resistance
• The Ohms Law: Calculating Intensity - Voltage
• Association of Resistance in Series / Parallel 4
 Contents

• The Power Concept - The Energy Concept

• The Magnetic Field Concept - Electromagnetism
• The application of Electromagnetism to Relays
• Alternating Current and Voltage
• Period and Frequency
• Single-Phase Voltage
• Triple-Phase Voltage
• Simple Voltage and Compound Voltage
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• The Alternating Current Receptors

• The Alternating Current Ohm Law
• Resistive Circuit - Inductive Circuit - Capacitive Circuit
5
• A Series RLC Circuit - Parallel RLC Circuit
 Contents

• The Transformer Principle

• The Transformation Ratio
• Electrical Distribution - The Electrical Distribution Network
• The Triangle/Triangle Transformer Coupling
• The Triangle/Star Transformer Coupling
• The Triangle/Star + Neutral Transformer Coupling
• The Revolving Field
• The Triple-Phase Motor
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• The Single-Phase Motor

• The Bi-Directional Single-Phase Motor
• The Types of Triple-Phase Motors
6
 Contents

• Alternating Electrical Power

• Active Power - Reactive Power - Apparent Power
• The Power Factor - The Importance of the Power Factor
• The Diode
• Half-Wave Rectification
• Full-Wave Rectification
• PT 100
• Thermistors
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• Electrical Devices
• Protection
7
 TYPE OF ELECTRICAL CURRENT

Atome
atom éelectron
le ctron

noya
coreu

An electrical current is produced by the movement of

particles that carry an electrical charge.
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These carriers in matter are called electrons.

Electrons have a negative charge and move from one
atom to another.
8
 THE NATURE OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

Electrons can be made to move more or less easily depending

on the nature of the material.
Materials can be categorised into two families:

* Conductors
- Electrons can be made to move easily, as in iron,
copper and aluminium, etc.

* Insulators
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- It is very hard or impossible to get the electrons to

move, as in porcelain, Bakelite, rubber and plastics, etc.

9
 THE ELECTRIC CURRENT

Negative Electrical Positive

Pole Conductor Pole

By convention, we say that the current comes out of the

positive pole of the generator.
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This conventional direction of the current is the opposite

of the actual direction of movement of the negative
charges. 10
 ELECTRIC CURRENT - INTENSITY DEFINITION

Current intensity is the flow of electrical charges that pass

through a conductor.

The unit of intensity is the AMPERE.

The intensity of a current is measured with an ammeter,

which is placed in series in the circuit, such that the current
to be measured passes through it.
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The position of the ammeter is not important: the

INTENSITY is the same at all points in a circuit that does
not have any branches.
11
 MEASURING INTENSITY

GENERATOR

The current is measured

using an ammeter which is
connected in series in the
circuit to be measured.
RECEPTOR
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12
 PREPARING THE MEASURING DEVICE

A) The type of current (alternating or direct) must be known for any

A) Pour toute mesure il faut connaître la nature du
courant ( alternatif ou continu ) pour adapter l’appareil en 
ou en  soit par le choix des calibres spécifiques ( ex :
MONOC ) ou par commutateur ( ex : FLUKE )

ATTE NTION en continu la pol arité doi t être respectée

sinon l’aiguil le déviera en sens inverse.

B) La connexion des cordons, si elle n’existe pas déj à

sur l’appareil, se fera en règle générale comme suit :

1° Un cordon sur la borne repérée COM (commun)

measurement in order to be able to adapt the device in

or in = either by selecting specific calibres (e.g. MONOC) or by
switch (e.g. FLUKE)

NB. The polarity must be respected for direct current otherwise

the needle will move in the opposite direction

B) The cables, if not already on the device, shall, as a general rule,

be connected as follows:
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1° A cable on the terminal labelled COM (common)

13
 2° Pour le deuxième cordon 2 tendances sont à discerner:
2° There are two trends for the second cable :
A) * Les calibres sont matérialisés par des bornes
différentes ( comme sur le METRIX) mettre alors le 2è
A) *The calibres are translated by different terminals (such as
cordon sur une des bornes repérées par ‘’xA’’ ou par
on the METRIX) the second cable is therefore connected to one
‘’xmA’’ en accord avec la valeur à mesurer.
of the terminals labelled “xA” or “xmA” subject to the value to be
measured
B) Si l’ordre de grandeur de la mesure n’est pas connu
mettre alors le cordon sur la borne correspondant au
B) plus
If thegrand
size ofcalibre
the measurement
puis changeris deunknown,
calibre the cable à
de façon
should be connected
ce que l’aiguille setotrouve
the terminal
dans lefor2èthe largest
tiers calibre. and
du cadran
then( the
pourcalibre changed
diminuer l’erreursuch that the needle lies within the
relative)
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second third of the dial (so as to reduce the relative error)

14
 B) * If a switch selects the calibre, connect
the cable to the terminal labelled “A” or
“mA”.

Set the switch index to the desired

calibre

If the size is unknown, connect the device

to the largest calibre, as above
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15
 KIRCHHOFF'S CURRENT LAW

There may not be any accumulation

of electrical charges at a point in I2
I1
the circuit for direct current.

The algebraical sum of the N I3

intensities of the currents in the
conductors directed towards a node I4
is equal to the algebraical sum of
the currents in the conductors
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directed away from the node. I

1I
+2I
=3I
+4

16
 THE CONCEPT OF VOLTAGE

The electrical state (charge) of two bodies must be

different in order for the electrons to move.

This difference in state is maintained by the

GENERATOR which operates as an "electron pump"

The generator maintains this state which we call a

DIFFERENCE IN POTENTIAL.
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The unit of voltage is the VOLT.

17
 MEASURING VOLTAGE

GENERATOR

Voltage is measured using

a voltmeter, directly at the RECEPTOR
terminals of the device.
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18
 THE CONCEPT OF RESISTANCE

The resistance value for a conductor depends on two characteristics:

* Its dimensions
- Length (the greater the size of L, the greater the resistance)
- Cross-section (the greater the size of S, the smaller the resistance)

* Its nature
- This is characterised by a coefficient known as the electrical resistivity of
the material.(r)
R in ohms (W)
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r in ohm metres (W mm²/m)

R = r L/S L in metres (m)
The unit of resistance is the OHM.
S in square millimetres (mm²)
19
 MEASURING RESISTANCE

An OHMMETER is used to measure disconnected

resistance.

There are several calibres of ohmmeter. The calibre that

provides a measurement at the middle of its scale should be
chosen in order to obtain good accuracy of measurement.


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RECEP TEUR
RECEPTOR

20
 RESISTANCE COLOUR CODES

Chiffre
Significant
significatif Multiplicateur Tolérance
Multiplier Tolerance
Figure

NOIR
BLACK 0 1 EXAMPLE:
MARRON
BROWN 1 10
ROUGE
RED 2 100 1st orange ring = 3
ORANGE
ORANGE 3 1 000 2nd white ring = 9
YELLOW
JAUNE 4 10 000 3rd yellow ring = 10 4

GREEN
VERT 5 105 4th silver ring = Tolerance 10%
BLUE
BLEU 6 106
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4
PURPLE
VIOLET 7 or a resistance of 39 *10 = 390 000W
GREY
GRIS 8
WHITE
BLANC 9
GOLD
OR 5%
SILVER
ARGENT 10 %
No ring d'anneau
Absence 20 %
21
 THE OHMS LAW

For a receptor of resistance R through which a current I

passes which is subject to a difference in potential U, these
three values are connected by the following relationship:

U=RI U in volts (V)

I in amps (A)
I R in ohms (W)
R
U

Resistance: the component is a resistor and it measures

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resistance.

22
 THE OHMS LAW: CALCULATING RESISTANCE

A
+A I 2 A

r com

+ +V
V
- R U V U 12 V
com

12 V
R? R= U = = 6 
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I 2 A

Application to the Resistance Calculation. 23

 THE OHMS LAW: CALCULATING INTENSITY

I
r
+ 12 V
V R U V I? I= U = = 2 A
- R 6 
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Application to the Intensity Calculation.

24
 THE OHMS LAW: CALCULATING VOLTAGE

A
r

+
V
- R U U? U=RI= 6  2 A = 12 V
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Application to the Voltage Calculation.

25
 ASSOCIATION OF RESISTANCE IN SERIES

When mounted in series, the same current passes through the

resistors. This down as follows:
u = u1 + u2 + u3 = R1i + R2i + R3i

u= ( R1 + R2 + R3 ) i

Req = R1 + R2 + R3
A i B
R1 R2 R3
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u1 u2 u3
u
A B
Réq
26

u
 ASSOCIATION OF RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL

When mounted in parallel, the resistors are subject to the

same voltage. This down as follows:
i = i1 + i2 + i3 = u/R1 + u/R2 + u/R3

i= ( 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 ) u

1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

i1
R1
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A i i2 B A i B
R2 Réq

i3 u
R3 27

u
 THE POWER CONCEPT

The electrical power involved between two points in a circuit

is the same as the product of the voltage U and the intensity I.

P in Watts (W)
P= U I U in volts (V)
I in amps (A)
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The unit of power is the Watt (W).

28
 THE OHMS LAW: CALCULATING POWER

The specific case of linear resistance:

P= UI = RI² = U²/R
This is the expression of the power dissipated by the joule
effect (heat).
This corresponds to the power of the radiator for heating
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systems.
This corresponds to line losses for the transportation of
electrical energy.
29
 THE ENERGY CONCEPT

If during time t, a receptor permanently consumes power

constant P, it absorbs a total energy of:

W in joules J
W=Pt P in Watts (W)
t in seconds s

The unit of energy is the Joule (J).

The watt hour (Wh) and the kilowatt hour (kWh) are also
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used as units of energy.

1Wh = 3600J
30
 THE MAGNETIC FIELD CONCEPT

Natural Magnetism

Permanent magnets have two poles (north and south) and

have the particularity that they are mutually attracted by
their opposing poles (N, S) and repelled by their identical
poles.
A magnetic field is created around material magnetic from
north to south along the outside of the magnet and from south
to north inside the magnet
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S N

31
 ELECTROMAGNETISM

The circulation of an electrical

current in a coil conductor
creates a magnetic field inside
the coil.
When the current changes
direction, the magnetic field i
also changes direction.
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32
 APPLICATION OF ELECTROMAGNETISM TO RELAYS

When a metal core is placed

inside a coil and it is powered,
it creates a magnetic field
which moves it. This is the
principle used for relays.
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33
 ALTERNATING CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

The electrical network delivers sinusoidal

alternating voltage.
(u,i) Alternance Alternance
Positive
positivepart Negative
négative part

Time
Temps
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Period
Période

The industrial machine that generates sinusoidal

voltage is the alternator. 34
 PERIOD AND FREQUENCY

The period of a value (voltage, current, etc.) is the interval

which separates two consecutive points in time at which the
value reproduces itself identically.
The period T, is given in seconds.

T in seconds s
f = 1/T f in hertz Hz
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The frequency f represents the number of periods T in one

second.
The frequency for the entire European network is 50 Hz.
35
 SINGLE-PHASE VOLTAGE

Alternating single-phase voltage is usually provided by

2 conductors (1 phase, 1 neutral).
U
The effective sinusoidal
U maximum
voltage is the same as the efficient
U efficace
direct voltage that
provides the same power Time
Temps

P at the same resistance.  

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U max = 2 Ueff
Measuring devices give the effective value.
36
 TRIPLE-PHASE VOLTAGE

Alternating triple-phase voltage is normally provided by 3

phase conductors (L1, L2, L3), possibly with a neutral.

(u,i)
U

0 T/3 2T/3 T

Period
Période
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The phases have the same frequency and the same potential,
but are displaced by one-third of a period over time.
37
 SIMPLE VOLTAGE AND COMPOUND VOLTAGE

Simple Voltage = Voltage between phase and neutral

(V)

Compound Voltage = Voltage between phases

(U)
Neutre
Neutral
V1
Phase 1
V2 U1
Phase 2
V3 U2 U3
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Phase 3

Tens
ion c
Compoundom pos é
e 3
Voltage
=
Tensi
o n sim pl
Simple Voltagee 38
 ALTERNATING CURRENT RECEPTORS

Experiment

+
29 V
- 29 V

V Récepteur
Receptor
A
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Let's create an assembly that we can use to power a

receptor in direct or alternating current. 39
 THE ALTERNATING CURRENT OHM LAW

The results obtained with alternating current are different

to those obtained with direct current.

Ohms Law is written as follows, for alternating current:

U in volts (V)
U=ZI I in amps (A)
Z in ohm (W)
Z is called the impedance of the circuit.
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40
 RESISTIVE CIRCUIT

If a resistor is connected as a receptor, we note that the

measurements confirm the Ohms Law and we obtain the same
results with both direct and alternating currents.

R=Z
U I

We can see on the oscilloscope

that the voltage and the
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Time
intensity pass their peaks and
Temps

troughs simultaneously. We say

that U and I are in phase.
41
 INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT

If a coil is connected as a receptor, we note that the measurements

are different on the use of direct and alternating currents.
* For direct current R = ohmic resistance of the coil
* For alternating current
U I
We can see a displacement
between voltage and intensity
on the oscilloscope. The Time
Temps

current comes 90° or p/2 after

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the voltage.  /2


Z=Lw 2

L = inductance of the circuit, given in Henry 42

w = 2 p f where f is the frequency in Hertz

 CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT

If a capacitor is connected as a receptor, we note that the

measurements are different on the use of direct and alternating
currents.
* For direct current, the ohmic resistance is infinite
* For alternating current
We can see a displacement
between voltage and intensity
on the oscilloscope. The Time
Temps

current comes 90° or p/2

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before the voltage.  /2



Z = 1/Cw 2

43
C = capacity of circuit, given in Farad
w = 2 p f where f is the frequency in Hertz
 SERIES RLC CIRCUITS

R L C

There is phase displacement between the current and the

voltage characterised by each element of the circuit. The
vectorial representation (Fresnel diagram) enables the
resulting voltage to be displayed.
L I
1/C
U = UR + UL + UC
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U
U = RI + LI + I/C RI 44
 SERIES RLC CIRCUITS

R L C

By applying Pythagoras Theorem

L I
U² = R² I² + ( LwI - I/Cw )² 1/C
U² = I² [ R² + ( Lw - 1/Cw)²]
U = I R² + ( Lw - 1/Cw)²
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U
RI
Z = R² + ( Lw - 1/Cw )²
45
 PARALLEL RLC CIRCUITS

C L R

The three receptors are subject to the same voltage. The Fresnel
construction of the currents enables U and I to be displayed.

- We plot U
- We plot IR, for which the module is U/R I IC
- We plot IL, for which the module is IR U
U/Lw and the phase displacement is p/2
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- We plot IC, for which the module is

UCw and the phase displacement is -p/2 IL
We obtain the vector I and the phase 46

displacement j.
 PARALLEL RLC CIRCUITS

I = IR + IL + IC I IC
IR U
I² = IR² + ( IC - IL )²

(U/Z )² = (U/R)² + (CU - U/L)²

IL
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(1/Z) = (1/R)² + (C - 1/L)²

47
 ALTERNATING ELECTRICAL POWER

The phase displacement between the voltage and the intensity

on the use of alternating current depends on the
characteristics of the receptor alone.

There are three types of power:

* Active power P
* Reactive power Q
* Apparent power S
S
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Q
We represent these using a
Fresnel construction.
P 48
 ACTIVE POWER

This corresponds to the mechanical power available on the

motor shaft (to the nearest efficiency).

In single-phase
P in Watts (W)
P = U I cos j U in volts (V)
In triple-phase I in amps (A)
P= 3 U I cos j cos j (no units)
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This is measured using a power meter.

49
 REACTIVE POWER

This corresponds to the magnetising power.

In single-phase
Q in volt-amps-reactive (VAR)
Q = U I sin j U in volts (V)
In triple-phase I in amps ( I )
Q = 3 U I sin j sin j (no units)
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This is measured with a specific power meter (assembly).

50
 APPARENT POWER

This corresponds to the power conveyed over the power line.

In single-phase S=UI S in volt-amps (VA)

U in volts (V)
In triple-phase S= 3 UI I in amps (A)
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U and I are measured with a voltmeter and an ammeter, then S

is calculated.
51
 POWER TABLE

Sigle phase Triple phase Unit

P W
Active P = UIcosφ P= 3UIcosφ watts
Power
Q VAR
Reactive Q = UIsinφ Q = 3UIsinφ volt-amps-reactive
Power
S
VA
Apparent S = UI S= 3UI volt-amps
Power
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Fresnel S
Q
construction
P 52
 THE POWER FACTOR

The power factor is the ratio between the active power and the
apparent power.
This is cos j of the installation.

S in volt-amps (VA)
cos j = P / S P in Watts (W)

Electrical network sets a minimum cos j. If the cos j is less

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than 0.93 the reactive energy is billed. It is possible to increase

cos j by connecting capacitors in parallel with the
installation. 53
 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE POWER FACTOR

The current consumed by an installation is as follows:

- Proportional to the power absorbed
- Inversely proportional to cos j

I = P / (U cos j )
For a 1.15Kw, 230V power installation
I = 5A if cos j = 0.9
I = 9A if cos j = 0.5
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Electrical network must over-dimension its lines for the same

power provided. It must over-dimension the cables and the 54
protection mechanisms.
 THE TRANSFORMER PRINCIPLE

The Transformer Principle

An alternating magnetic field is

created in a primary coil with a
primary alternating voltage. This
magnetic field is transported by a
magnetic circuit composed of silicon
steel sheet. This magnetic field travels
around the inside a secondary coil,
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creating a secondary alternating

voltage.
55
 THE TRANSFORMATION RATIO

MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
CIRCUIT MAGNETIQUE

 Is

Ip

Up
Us Us = Up Ns/Np
Npturns
spires Ns spires
No. of No. of turns

The primary voltage Up is imposed and the secondary

voltage Us is dependent on the respective numbers of turns on
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the coils.
A transformer modifies the voltage and the intensity without
changing the power. Ns/Np is called a transformation ratio. 56
 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION

The electrical energy is transported via aerial or sometimes,

subterranean, lines.

There are different transport voltages.

* Very High Voltage (VHV 400kV) for long distances.
* High Voltage (HV 90kV) and Medium
Voltage (MV 20kV) for average distances.
* Low Voltage (LV 230V or 400V) for distribution
to individuals.
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The passage from one voltage to another is carried out

in transformer stations.
57
 THE ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION NETWORK

VHV 400 kV

HV 20 kV
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LV 400 V

58
 THE TRIANGLE / TRIANGLE TRANSFORMER COUPLING

.
The distribution network is always triple-phase. There are
therefore different coupling options for the transformer coils.
The most common couplings are as follows:

Triangle/Triangle Coupling
L1
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L2

L3

Primary 3 * 20kV Secondary 3* 400 V 59

 THE TRIANGLE / STAR TRANSFORMER COUPLING

.
Triangle / Star Coupling

L1

L2
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L3

Primary 3 * 20kV Secondary 3* 400 V 60

 THE TRIANGLE / STAR WITH NEUTRAL TRANSFORMER COUPLING

.Triangle/Star Coupling with Neutral

L1

0 N

L2
L3

Primary 3 * 20kV Secondary 3* 230/400 V

The ratio between the simple voltage (voltage between phase
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and neutral) and the compound voltage (voltage between

phases) is as follows: U = 3 V
61

230 3 = 400 Volts

 THE REVOLVING FIELD - MOTOR

In order to cause a magnetic bar to move, it merely needs to

be successively attracted by different magnetic fields.

Triple-phase voltage, however, is characterised in that the

three phases always follow each other in the same order with
a constant displacement.

A revolving magnetic field can be created by placing three

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coils at 120° ( STATOR ), each of which are connected to a

phase that is created.

The magnetic bar (ROTOR) is then made to rotate. 62

 THE TRIPLE-PHASE MOTOR

L1

(u,i)
U
L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3

0 T/3 2T/3
N T

L2 Période
period

L3
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- The phases appear in the order 1_2_3

- The coils are powered one after the other 1_2_3
- The bar turns in the direction 1_2_3, since it is attracted to
them, one after the other 63
 THE TRIPLE-PHASE MOTOR

There are two types of triple-phase motor.

The Synchronous Motor

- The rotor turns at the same speed as the revolving field
- The rotor is either a permanent magnet or powered with
direct current.

The Asynchronous Motor

- The rotor does not turn as fast as the revolving field, there is
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a slip
- The rotor is an induced magnetisation rotor (squirrel cage)
64
 REVERSING THE DIRECTION OF ROTATION

The direction of rotation of a triple-phase motor is reversed by

reversing the direction of the revolving field.

The rotation is reversed by reversing any 2 of phases 1 2 and 3.

This may be achieved using a reverse gear or a controlled

relay.
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65
 THE SINGLE-PHASE MOTOR

Bobine
Coil 1 L1

Condensateur
Capacitor
S

N
Bobine 2
Coil 2

N
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A revolving field needs to be created artificially for a single-

phase motor. To do this, we use a capacitor which displaces the
current from coil 2 in relation to that in coil1. 66
 THE BI-DIRECTIONAL MOTOR

Coil 1
Bobine

L1
S

N
Bobine
Coil 2 2

N
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The capacitor merely needs to be moved to reverse the direction

of rotation in a single-phase motor. The mounting of a reverse
gear enables a bi-directional motor to be obtained. 67
 THE DIODE

A diode is an electronic component which only allows the

current to pass in one direction. The current may pass from the
anode to the cathode, this is the permitted direction for the
diode.
A node C athode Anode Cathode

I I

Anode Cathode Anode Cathode

I I
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We should remember that the analogy is that the diode acts

as a check valve. 68
 HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION

T D

U
U R

A node C athode Anode Cathode

I I

U U

Temps Temps
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
2

The diode placed in the resistor circuit only allows the positive
part of the alternating current to pass. 69
 FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION

U I

R
U U

U
Temps
A node C athode

I
Anode

I
Cathode
Temps


2
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Both parts of the alternating current are passed to the

receptor via the installation of a diode bridge (4 diodes).
The voltage obtained is a rectified voltage and not direct
70
voltage.
 THE PT 100s

The resistance value of materials varies with temperature.

The resistance for a material with linear characteristics
follows the following mathematical law:
R°: resistance at 0°C
R = R° (1 + a t )
A node C athode Anode Cathode

I I

a: temperature coefficient for the material

R: resistance at temperature T

The resistance for a PT 100 is 100 at 0°C and the variation is

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approximately 0.4Ω per degree.

71
 THERMISTORS

A thermistor is a electronic component with an internal

resistance that varies subject to the temperature.

These components can be split into two categories:

* CTPs : Those for which the resistance increases on
A node C athode

I
Anode

I
Cathode

an increase in temperature (positive temperature

coefficient).
* CTNs : Those for which the resistance decreases on
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an increase in temperature (negative temperature

coefficient).

72
 THERMISTORS

Résistance
Resistance Résistance
Resistance
 
CTP CTN

1000 1000

A node C athode Anode Cathode

I I

10 10
Temperature
Température Temperature
Température

20 80 °C 20 80 °C
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The characteristics of CTP and CTN thermistors are used for

regulating probes, motor overheat detection, and so on. 73