Theory of Structures and

Building Construction
Semester IX
Types of Structures – Span
Dependent
 Long span Structures
 Short span Structures
Types of Structures – Span
Dependent
 Long span Structures (probably used for AD)
◦ 15-20 m in steel
◦ 10 m and above in concrete
◦ Column free spaces
◦ Framed Structures
◦ Not possible in stone, brick, etc. without very thick
walls – 1 m onwards
Types of Structures – Span
Dependent
 Short span Structures
◦ Less than 15 m in steel
◦ Less than 10 m in concrete
◦ Generally Load Bearing Structures; can be framed
Long Span Structures
 What are long span structures?
 Why long span structures?
 How are they possible?
 Types of Long Span Structures
What are Long Span Structures ?
 General Definition
Span of beams or spacing of Columns greater
than 10-20 m (65 ft) depending upon
material
Why Long Span Structures?
◦ Site Requirements
◦ Design Considerations
Why Long Span Structures ?
Design Considerations

 Flexibility
◦ Exhibition Centres for example can have various kinds of sizes of exhibits in
every exhibition. It is not possible to design the space for every single
possibility.
 Visibility
◦ Stadiums, Auditoriums require un-interrupted spaces to get the best use of their
design.
 Storage Capacity
◦ Storage facilities require large spaces for moving material/objects in and out
without impediments

All of above is seldom possible with conventional construction

How Long Span Structures ?
 What are the properties that defines the
capacity of beam section
◦ Moment of Inertia/Section Modulus
◦ Allowable bending Stress
◦ Material
◦ Span
◦ Applied Load
How Long Span Structures ?
Load carrying capacity (moment)

 Allowable Moment = Section Modulus x

Allowable Bending Stress
How Long Span Structures ?
 Moment of Inertia
◦ MI = width *depth^3/12
◦ If depth is bigger than MI increases
◦ Thus Bending capacity increases – load carrying
capacity increases
How Long Span Structures ?
 Larger the span, the allowable moment
increases
 To compensate for the moment we have

either increase the section modulus or the

allowable stress
 In case of conventional concrete, the

structure can become massive – increasing

cost of construction, construction time
 Generally steel is the preferred material
Long Span Structures
 Preferred Material
 By Structural Design
Long Span Structures - Material
◦ Laminated timber – Generally roof only
◦ Steel
 Steel/RC combined - Composite (used for floors)
◦ Precast Concrete
◦ Plastic-coated Textile material (tensile structures)
Long Span Structures – By Design
 Portal Frames
 Folded Plate Structures
 Shell Structures
 Cable Structures
 Space Frames

◦ 2D Frame - Trusses/Joists – Open web structures

◦ 3D Frame
Long Span Structures –
By Material
Timber Structures
Timber Long Span Structures

 Glulam Beams are most preferred for long

span structures. These are light weight and
therefore add very small dead load
 Such beams have very small laminations and

each lamination can have different properties

 Varying properties of lamination can be used

to resist the forces – generally compression

Glulam Beams - Laminated
Timber Long Span Structures

 Generally preferred for roofs, thereby

reducing dead loads (light weight wood).
 Used extensively in North America and

Europe
 Predominantly structure is in form of an arch
Long Span Structures - Timber
Glulam Beams - Laminated
Glulam Beams - Laminated
 Basic beams and columns: having straight or
tapered profiles, simply supported and
pinned or continuous over several spans –
spans or heights generally in the range 6m to
30m.
Glulam Beams - Laminated
Timber Tree (trussed) Columns
 Tree-shaped columns and roof supports;
vertical trussed columns – overall heights up
to approximately 24m.
Timber Built up Beams
 Built-up beams, stressed skin panels (roofs) –
from upto 30m for compound beams
(parallam, GLB), and panels; up to 40m for
girders that are divided with site erection
nodes.
Glulam Beams - Laminated
Timber Tied Frames
 Wood Portal Frames
with steel tie rods
 Propped Portals –

Intermediate Column
in between
Timber Full Portal Frame
 Full Portals – No
column in between
Timber Arches
Timber Domes
Timber Domes
 Domes – essentially these are conceived and
planned in the same manner as “two-
dimensional” arches. The construction
process rules their conception. For very large
arenas, round, oval and apsidal-ended plans
are attained with spans of up to 140m.
Long Span Structures - Timber
 Rule of thumb span to depth ratio is 20.
However, since laminations can be changed
we can increase to as much as 35.
Long Span Structures - Timber
Long Span Structures - Timber
Disadvantages
 Wood treatment is required
 Transportation
 Fire resistance
 Cost increases with span
Long Span Structures –
By Material
Steel Structures
Long Span Structures - Steel
 Steel is a versatile material
 Malleable and ductile
 Can be obtained with various strengths

(common strengths are 250 Mpa, 350 Mpa

and 500 Mpa)
Long Span Structures - Steel
 Steel – Based on Manufacturing
◦ Conventional Steel
◦ Prefabricated Steel
 Steel – Based on structural type
◦ Beams – Both Conventional and Prefabricated
◦ Joists – Prefabricated, made up of conventional
◦ Trusses – Prefabricated, made up of conventional
◦ Plate Girders – Prefabricated, made up of
conventional and plates
◦ Portal Frames – Prefabricated, made up of plates
Long Span Structures - Steel
 Conventional Steel - Using Regular available
shapes – erected on site – example ISA, ISMB,
ISMC sections, etc.
 Prefabricated Steel - Using Regular available

shapes and predefined shapes – made off site

then erected on site – made of plates to form
I Sections.
Conventional Steel Long Structures
Conventional Steel
 Standard Shapes easily available
 Smaller lead time
 Might not be economical
 Complex shapes not possible
Conventional Long Span Structures
500 350 300 250
MPa MPa MPa MPa
Prefabricated Long Steel Structures
Prefabricated Steel
 Longer lead time
 Less wastage of steel
 Complex shapes easily possible
Steel Conventional Beams
 Beams (Conventional)

 Span/Depth use
L/15 to L/25
 Spaced from 2.5

m to 10 m.
 Need purlins for

spacing greater
than 2.5 m
Open Web Steel Joists
 Long Span Joists (Depth =
Span/20)
◦ Space for ducts included –
called open web joists
◦ Made of conventional angles
◦ Spaced upto 2.5 m o.c.
◦ Types – K, LH, DLH
Plate Girders
 Plate Girders
◦ Uses plates
◦ Conventional ISA
◦ Span to depth – 30 to 37, spaced max of 10 m
◦ Used for bridges primarily
◦ Need cross bracing (trusses or
purlins)intermediately
Plate Girders
Steel Trusses
 Trusses
◦ Span to depth
10 to 25
Steel Trusses
 Trusses
◦ Spaced from 2.5m
(span to depth
25)to 10m (span
to depth 10 –
need purlins
spaced upto 2.5
m) depending
upon roof/floor
configuration
Cellular Steel Beams
Cellular Steel Beams
 Cellular or Castellated Beams
◦ Cellular beams, with regularly spaced holes in the
web of an I-section beam can be produced in one
of two ways.
◦ Beams are 1.4 to 1.6 times the depth of its parent
beams.
◦ Beams are 2.5 times stronger than their parent
beams.
◦ Span to depth – 20 to 27
◦ Not approved for seismic areas (Zone IV and above)
Long Span Structures - Steel
◦ By cutting along the web of a beam section (usually
a conventional beam) to a particular profile,
separating the two parts and then welding these
Tee sections back together to form a deeper beam
section.
Long Span Structures - Steel
 Usually, a single section size is used for both
halves of the cellular beam but asymmetric
sections can be created by using different
rolled sections for each part of the new
section.
Long Span Steel
Structures
Composite Floors
Composite Floors
◦ For long span steel structures, the floor slab spans
more than regular construction
◦ Concrete floors are hence need to be looked at.
◦ Precast slabs are used as option
◦ Another option, is using steel shear studs that bond
with the poured concrete
◦ The bonding of concrete also helps reduce depth of
steel beam – This is included in span to depth
ratios of castellated floor beams.
Precast Floors on Steel
Composite Floors on Steel
Composite Structures
Steel Structures - Comparison
Span/depth ratios for different beam
Form of solutions
construction
Secondary beams Primary beams

Steel beam * 18-20 13-15

Composite beam
22-25 16-18
**

Cellular beam 20-27 15-18

Steel Truss 15-18 12-15

* - Beams become uneconomical after 8 m

** - Beams become uneconomical after 12 m
Long Span Structures - Steel
 Industrial Projects
 Commercial Projects
 Infrastructure Projects
 Hi end residential
Steel – Industrial Structures
 Pre-engineered metal buildings consist of
prefabricated structural steel members including
beams, columns, girts, and trusses.
Long Span Structures
Industrial Projects
Steel – Commercial Projects
 Open web steel joists
span between beams
and girders. The
standard designation
for open web steel
joists includes the
nominal depth (in
inches), span
classification (K, LH, or
DLH), and chord
diameter.
Long Span Structures
Commercial Projects
Steel – Infrastructure Projects
 A wide variety of
structural steel shapes
are joined together to
form a truss. Common
steel truss designs
include the bowstring,
flat, Howe, Pratt,
scissors, and Warren.
Long Span Structures - Steel
Infrastructure Projects
Long Span Structures - Steel
Infrastructure Projects
Long Span Structures - Steel
 Conventional Steel – Residential/Commercial
Construction
 Prefabricated Steel – Industrial Construction
 Trusses – Infrastructure Projects –

Airports/Stadiums

Gives required shape with least formwork,

might be costly w.r.t to concrete
Long Span Structures - Steel
Steel Disadvantages
 Costlier in India
 Corrosion resistance
 Fire resistance
Long Span Structures –
By Material
Concrete
Long Span Structures - Concrete
 Regular Concrete
 Precast Concrete
 Post Tensioned Concrete
Long Span Structures - Concrete
 Regular Concrete
◦ Huge Sizes
◦ Exterior factors play important part
◦ Formwork difficult
◦ Useful when transportation of precast is not
possible
◦ Costly (Double reinforced beams and higher grade
concrete)
Long Span Structures - Concrete
Basic Concrete Behaviour (concrete takes in
compression and steel tension)
Long Span Structures –
By Material
Precast Concrete
Long Span Structures - Concrete
 Precast Beams
◦ Curing controlled
◦ Not weather dependent
◦ Reinforcing techniques superior and easily
controlled
◦ Proper supervision
◦ No formwork
◦ Better Architectural Finish
◦ Difficult transportation
Precast Beams
Precast Concrete – For Architects
 Precast concrete can carry pre-installed
services and fixtures, whether these are
communications, plumbing or even windows.
 Services can be cast within a precast element

or panels can include connection plates ready

to receive heating and lighting fittings on
site. This makes both construction and
maintenance easy.
 Wi-fi Compatible
Precast Concrete – For Architects
 Quality in design and production means precast
units are extremely structurally efficient; they have a
high span/depth ratio and IS15916-2011 makes
provision for reduced partial safety factors for
precast, in acknowledgement of the controlled
production environment
 Tall buildings of up to 80 storeys can be built with
precast because of its structural efficiency results in
a lower storey height (reduced floor depth
dimension for the same span as other materials)
and so it becomes economically possible to add
more floors.
Precast Concrete – For Architects
 Intelligent Structures
Sometimes it may be helpful to know how a structure
is performing over time. Microchips can be embedded
in precast concrete to log data on movement or
stress. Engineers can easily ‘read’ the data on the
chip by swiping a reading device across the surface
of the element. In particularly sensitive applications,
these same microchips can send a signal to indicate
excessive movement or impact. This is particularly
useful for bridges and tall buildings.
Precast Concrete
 Precast concrete is made from a range of
materials,
which can be combined to produce different
properties. This means that precast can be
porous or impervious; it can float or sink, be
heavy or light.
 The use of steel fibre reinforcement in the

precast concrete mix can produce extremely

slender elements. This means that precast can
be used in some very structurally ambitious
projects.
Precast Concrete
 Restoration
In areas of historic or architectural importance, it may be
important to ensure that any new buildings match or are
sympathetic to their older counterparts. Careful mix
design in the precast factory and use of mock-ups can
ensure that the match is satisfactory for all those involved.
 Artistic Features
By using a process called photo-engraving, it is possible
to turn precast concrete elements into huge photo
albums. A dot matrix of the selected photo or graphic
image is effectively reproduced in the surface of the
precast element, so it will not fade or wash away over
time. This technique is often used to dramatic effect
Precast Concrete – For Architects
 Self Cleansing
The optional inclusion of titanium dioxide in white
cement not only produces white precast concrete but
helps to keep the finished product clean. It does this
by capturing dirt particles and then washing them
away during rainfall.
 Heat/Cold Sensitivity
The inclusion of thermo-chromatic dyes in precast
concrete will cause it to change colour when it
reaches particular temperatures. Thus, the concrete
can indicate
when it is too cold or too hot to touch.
Precast Concrete
 Beams
Precast Beams - Tees
Concrete – Precast Tees
 Pre-engineered
concrete tees of
various shapes and
sizes. These are
brought to the site
from an off site precast
yard. These can be
used for any purpose –
residential or
commercial.
Precast Concrete

 Trusses
Precast Concrete Floors
Precast Concrete Floors
Precast Concrete Floors
Long Span Structures - Concrete
 Residential Projects
 Commercial Projects
 Infrastructure Projects
 Industrial Projects
Long Span Structures - Concrete
Institutional Projects
Long Span Structures - Concrete
Commercial Projects
Long Span Structures - Concrete
Industrial Projects
Precast Concrete
Disadvantages
 If not properly handled, the precast units may

be damaged during transport.

 It becomes difficult to produce satisfactory

connections between the precast members.

Precast Concrete
Disadvantages
 It is necessary to arrange for special equipment

for lifting and moving of the precast units.

 The economy achieved in precast construction

is partially balanced by the amount to be spent

in transport and handling of precast members.
It becomes therefore necessary to locate the
precast factory at such a place that transport
and handling charges are brought down to the
minimum possible extent.
Long Span Structures –
By Material
Tensile Structures
Long Span Structures – PVC Coated
Tensile Structure
 Thanks to their high tensile strength (five
times greater than steel), coated fabrics can
be used to create support-free constructions
with wide spans. They are not only a crucial
design element, but are a structurally
indispensable part of the overall construction
thanks to the pre-tensioning applied.
Long Span Structures – PVC Coated
Tensile Structure
 Apart from PVC-coated polyester fabrics,
several other material combinations such as
PTFE (Polytetrafluoroethylene – Teflon) - or
silicone- coated glass fabrics or
fluoropolymer foils.
 Ultimately, it is the respective, project-

specific requirements, the budget available

and the home-builder's wishes as to
aesthetics and design that are decisive for the
selection of materials.
Long Span Structures – PVC Coated
Tensile Structure
All advantages at a glance:
 Individual shape and colour
 Low material costs
 Short planning, manufacturing and assembly

time
 Support-free roofing for large areas
 Temporary and portable constructions

possible
Long Span Structures – PVC Coated
Tensile Structure
All advantages at a glance:
 Enclosed structures possible using thermally

insulated and soundproofed, multilayer

membrane constructions
 Savings on lighting
 Long lifespan
 Excellent heat protection – high reflectivity
 Excellent resistance to earthquakes
Long Span Structures - Fabric
Questions