SEISMIC DATA PROCESSING

by
TAUFIK ALIF MANAN

Geophysics Physics
University of Indonesia
SEISMIC
DATA
PROCESSING
An Overview
Processing of Reflection Data
• Improve the signal to noise ratio: e.g. by measuring of several
channels and stacking of the data (white noise is suppressed).

• Obtain a higher resolution by adapting the waveform of the

signals.

• Isolate the wanted signals (isolate reflections from multiples and

surface waves).

• Obtain information about the subsurface (velocities, reflectivity

etc.).

• Obtain a realistic image by geometrical correction (Conversion

from travel time into depth and correction from dips and
diffractions).
Seismic Processing
Basic Framework for the Data Processing

Two different types of processing steps can be

distinguished:

• One Dimensional Filters and Methods

These methods are employed on separate traces (eg.
Frequency filter, Deconvolution).

• More Dimensional Filters and Methods

These methods are employed on more traces (e.g.
CMP, Shot-gathers or stacked sections).
Seismic Processing Systems
• Usually geared to a particular type of application
– Mostly CMP reflection processing;
– Land or marine, 2D or 3D.

• Commercial:
– ProMAX (Landmark);
– Omega (Western Geophysical, marine);
– Focus (Paradigm);
– Amoco and almost every other company
– have their own…
– Vista (Seismic Image Soft)

• Universities:
– Stanford Exploration Project;
– Seismic UNIX (Colorado School of Mines);
– FreeUSP (Amoco);
– SIOSEIS (Scripts, marine);
 Flow Chart of 2D Land Seismic Reprocessing

Data Input
Field Report
Field
-Observer’s report
Tape
-Geometry information

Reformat
Build geometry database
MERGE reformatted field tape
With geometry database

Preprocessing
- First Break Mute
- Editing
- Low / high cut filter
- Amplitude correction (Spherical Divergence)
- Deconvolution (Surface Consistent Predictive Decon)
- Refraction Static applied
Brute Stack
Sorting to CMP gather
using single velocity
1st Velocity Analysis
1st Residual Static Corr.
2nd Velocity Analysis
2nd Residual Static Corr.

Sorting to Common Offset Binning

- DMO Correction using 1st velocity - PRE STACK TIME MIGRATION

- 2nd Velocity Analysis using 2nd velocity (Vel. after DMO)
- NMO Correction - 3rd Velocity Analysis
- Muting - NMO Correction
- Stacking - Muting
- POST STACK MIGRATION - Stacking
- Time Variant Filter (for display only) - Time Variant Filter (for display only)
- Automatic Gain Control (for display only) - Automatic Gain Control (for display only)
CMP Processing Sequence
1. Demultiplex, Vibroseis Correlation, Gain Recovery.
Conversion from file formats produced by field data loggers into
processing:
• SEG-Y, SEG-2.
• ProMax, Focus, Omega, SU, Vista, etc., internal formats.

2. Field Geometry.
Assignment of source-receiver coordinates, offsets, etc. in
the trace headers.

3. Edit.
Removal of bad traces (noisy channels, poorly planted
geophones, channels contaminated by power line noise,
etc.).
CMP Processing Sequence (continued)
4. First Arrival Picking.
• May be semi-automatic or manual.
• Required for generation of refraction static, models and for
designing the mutes.

5. Elevation Static.
• Based on geometry information, compensates the travel-
time variations caused by variations in source/receiver
elevations.
• Transforms the records as if recorded at a common
horizontal datum surface.

6. Refraction Static.
• Builds a model for the shallow, low-velocity subsurface.
• Compensates travel-time variations caused by the shallow
CMP Processing Sequence (continued)
7. ‘Top’, ‘Bottom’, and ‘Surgical’ Mute.
Eliminates (sets amplitude=0) the time intervals where strong
non-reflection energy is present: First arrivals, ground roll,
airwave.

8. Refraction Static.
• Compensates geometrical spreading.
• Based on a simple heuristic relation.

9. Trace Balance.
• Equalizes the variations in amplitudes caused by differences
in coupling.
• In true-amplitude processing, replaced with surface-
consistent deconvolution.
CMP Processing Sequence (continued)
10. Deconvolution or Wavelet Processing.
• Compresses the wavelet in time, attenuates reverberations.
• Converts the wavelet to zero-phase for viewing.

11. Gather, CMP Sort.

Often (in ProMax, Omega, Vista) done by using trace lookup
tables instead of creating additional copies of the dataset.

12. Moveout (Radon, τ-p, f-k) Filtering.

Attenuates multiples, ground roll.

13. Velocity analysis.

• For each of the CMP gathers, determines the optimal
stacking velocity.
CMP Processing Sequence (continued)
14. Dip Moveout (DMO) correction.
• Transforms the records so that the subsequent NMO + stack
work well even in the presence of dipping reflectors.

15. Normal Moveout (NMO) correction.

• Removes the effects of source-receiver separation from
reflection records.
• Transforms the records as if recorded at normal incidence.

16. Residual statics.

• Removes the remaining small travel time variations caused
by inaccurate statics or velocity model.

 Steps 13-16 above are usually iterated 3-5 times to produce accurate
velocity and residual statics models.
 Success of velocity analysis depends on the quality of DMO/NMO and
residual statics, and vice versa.
CMP Processing Sequence (continued)
17. CMP Stack.
• Produces a zero-offset section.
• Utilizes CMP redundancy to increase the Signal/Noise ratio.
• Can employ various normalization ideas, e.g., diversity
stack.

18. Migration.
• Transforms the zero-offset time section into a depth image.
• Establishes correct extents and dips of the reflectors.

19. Frequency Filtering and Display.

• Attenuates noise.
• Provides best display for interpretation.
Initial Process
Field Geometry

Assignment of source-receiver coordinates, offsets, etc. in the

trace headers:
• Determine Source and receiver position for measured data.
• Calculate CMP position.
• Specify a certain BIN in which the measured trace belongs.
Trace Edit

Often, signal traces must be examined visually to detect

and correct or reject those errorneously recorded or
exceptionally noisy. For this purpose a compressed plot is
made off all records. Example of the former are blank or
“dead” traces, reversed polarity, signal clipping, incorrect
trace sequence, and errorneous recording time.
Editing
Editing
Trace Mute

Muting avoids noise wave contamination of reflections on summed (stacked trace).

Static Correction
Static corrections are applied to seismic data to compensate for the effects of
variations in elevation, weathering thickness, weathering velocity, or reference
to a datum. The objective is to determine the reflection arrival time which
would have been observed if all measurements had been made on a (usually)
flat plane with no weathering or low velocity layer present. These corrections
are based on up-hole data, refraction first-breaks, or event smoothing.
Static Correction

Static Correction : The whole trace is corrected with the same

time shift.

• Objectives of static corrections :

Adjust the seismic traces in such a way that the sources
and receivers are present at one horizontal level. To
achieve this, the travel times of the separate traces are
corrected.

Dynamic Correction : Different time windows in the trace

are corrected differently. This results in stretching and
compression of the events (e.g. NMO Correction).
Reference Diagram for Land Static
Corrections
Datuming
Methods for Static Correction

• Topographic Correction (elevation statics).

• “Up-hole”-correction using shots in borehole.

• Refraction statics : Corrections for weathered layer

– Delay-Time.
– Generalized reciprocal method (GRM).
– Diminishing residual matrices (DRM).
Topographic Correction
• Vertical aligning of the different elevations of sources
and receivers.

• Shot-Static
= (Elevation of source - Elevation of reference level) /
Velocity.

• Receiver-Static
= (Elevation of receiver - elevation of the reference
level) / Velocity.

• Correction time for a trace

= Shot-Static + Receiver-Static.
Topographic Correction

• Subdivision of time shift for source and receiver.

• All traces with equal source are corrected for the time
shift of the specific source.

• All traces with equal receiver are corrected for the time
shift of the specific receiver.

• The statics correction is the sum of the corrections for

appropriate source and receiver.
Refraction Statics

Correction for the weathered layer.

• Using the first breaks of a certain shot (refracted energy) a

model can be constructed for the weathered layer (velocities
and depth).

• When the distance between the receiver is too large,

sometimes supplementary refraction measurements are
carried out.
Methods to determine the velocity and depth of the
weathered layer using refractions.
• Delay-Time.
• GRM (generalized reciprocal method).
• DRM (diminishing residual matrices).
Static Correction
Static corrections are applied to seismic data to compensate for the effects of
variations in elevation, weathering thickness, weathering velocity, or reference
to a datum. The objective is to determine the reflection arrival time which
would have been observed if all measurements had been made on a (usually)
flat plane with no weathering or low velocity layer present. These corrections
are based on up-hole data, refraction first-breaks, or event smoothing.
NO STATICS WITH STATICS
Stack of Line without The Application of
Statics
Example Where ProMax Routine Made a
Static Solution
Amplitude Correction
Amplitude Correction

• The amplitude of a seismic signal decays with increasing

travel time.

• To obtain a realistic image, this decay must be

compensated for.

• In general, it is difficult to describe this amplitude decay

analytically, so an approximation is usually made.
FACTORS WHICH AFFECT AMPLITUDE
Amplitude Correction

• The amplitude of a seismic signal decays with increasing

travel time.

• To obtain a realistic image, this decay must be

compensated for.

• In general, it is difficult to describe this amplitude decay

analytically, so an approximation is usually made.
Loss of Amplitude

Loss of amplitude due to:

• Reflection and transmission at an interface.

• Geometrical spreading.

• Absorption.

• Receiver response.

• Measurement system
Problem for Data Processing

• Individual large amplitudes dominate the processing.

• Reflections are difficult to recognize.

Methods to Preserve Amplitude Information

• Trace equalization.

• AGC (“Automatic gain control”).

• Correction for the spherical divergence.

• Programmable gain functions

Trace Equalization

The simplest method is the normalization of the different traces. All

absolute values of a trace are summed and compared with a reference
value. A scaling factor is determined from the difference between the
summation and the reference value, which is used to multiply all data
with.
Automatic Gain Control (AGC)

Normalization of amplitude for a certain time sample in a

certain time window (not for the whole trace).

Advantage:
• All traces are more equal which is needed for further
processing.
(Stacking: summation of different traces)
• Amplification of Amplitudes for larger travel times.

Disadvantage:
• Shadow effect.
• Can lead to amplification of noise.
• No physical base for amplification.
Automatic Gain Control (AGC)

• Automatic gain controls scales by increasing the amplitudes in

segments of the trace where the amplitudes are low.

• It does this by using a moving time window of around a second

and dividing the amplitude of the center point by the root mean-
squared (rms) amplitude of the window.

• Some reflectors have stronger amplitudes than others and this

may obscure smaller, but important, reflections.

• “Automatic Gain Control” (AGC) boosts the amplitudes so that they

are all of similar size.

• Similar to a “contrast balance” function on a TV or in photoshop.

Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
Corrected Field Records From a Land Survey

Restored amplitudes at late times by correcting for geometrical

spreading (unfortunately ambient noise also has been strengthened
(Yilmaz, 1987).
Before AGC
After AGC
Trace Balancing
All traces are normalized using a certain amplitude:
• RMS
• Median value
• Maximum Value

Advantage:
• All traces are more equal which is needed for further
processing (Stacking: summation of different traces).

Disadvantage:
• No physical base for amplification.
• No equalization of losses with time.
• Large value in a trace can dominate.
Filtering
SPLIT-SPREAD FIELD RECORD
TYPES OF NOISE
CAUSES OF POOR SIGNAL-TO-NOISE
 NON-OPTIMAL FIELD PROCEDURES

 STRONG COHERENT NOISE

 SCATTERING OR ABSORPTION

- VULCANICS

- FRACTURED ZONE
 NEAR-SURFACE PROBLEMS

- POOR COUPLING
- ABSORPTION
 IMPROPER PROCESSING (STACK)
 TYPES OF FILTERS

Instrument Compensation

Bandpass Filters

Deconvolution

Waveshaping

Spatial (Mixing)

K-F Filters (Velocity, Wedge, Pie Slice)

F-K Filter
 F-K Filter

X
-K +K

F
T
REJECT or PASS
Contoh Aplikasi F-K Filter pada data VSP
Filter TEST?

?
Deconvolution
 Deconvolution

• Convolution was the forward operation :

Source (t) * reflectivity (t) = signal (t)

• Deconvolution is the reverse operation:

Reflectivity (t) = signal (t) *-1 source (t)
CONVOLUTIONAL MODEL
WAVELET CONTRIBUTORS
WAVELET CONTRIBUTORS
“IDEAL” DECONVOLUTION
PULSE COMPRESSION
Convolutional Model of a Seismogram

Convolution of the reflectivity function with the signal of the source

returns the seismic trace.
A CMP stack (a) with no deconvolution, (b) with spiking deconvolution before
stack, (c) with signature processing (minimum-phase conversion of the
measured signature) followed by spiking deconvolution, (d) with signature
processing only (conversion of the signature to a spike).
CMP Sort

• Sorting from shot gathers to “common-midpoint” (CMP) gathers.

• In a CMP gather, the reflections all come from the same point for flat
layer.

• We can also make common-receiver gathers.

• A common-depth-point (CDP) is similar to a CMP, but adjusts for

the dip of the layers.
CMP SORTING
Seismic data acquisition with multifold coverage is done in shot-receiver
(s,g) coordinates.
The figure is a schematic depiction of the recording geometry and ray path
associated with flat reflector. Seismic Data processing, on the other hand,
conventionally is done in midpoint-offset (y,h) coordinates. The required
coordinate transformation is achieved by sorting the data into CMP gathers.
Based on the field geometry information, each individual trace is assigned to
the midpoint between the shot and receiver location associated with that
trace. Those trace with the same midpoint location are grouped together,
making up a CMP gather. g
y
h
S M G

* * *

Albeit incorrectly, the term common depth point (CDP) and Common
Midpoint (CMP) often are used interchangeably.
Common Midpoint Sorting

Figure depicts the geometry of a CMP gather and ray paths associated with
a flat reflector. Note that CDP gather is equivalent to a CMP gather only
when reflectors are horizontal and velocities do not vary horizontally.
However, when there are dipping reflectors in the subsurface, these two
gathers are not equivalent and only the term CMP gather should be used.
Selected CMP gathers obtained from sorting the deconvolved shot gathers.
CMP Gathers
Common Midpoint Sorting

Raypaths associated with

Common Shot Gather

Raypaths associated with

Common Mid-Point Gather

Raypaths associated with

Common Offset Gather

Raypaths associated with

Common Receiver position
Gather
CMP Gather
Fold of Coverage for CMP Stacking
For most recording geometries, the fold of coverage nf
for CMP stacking is given by :

ng  g Δg : receiver group
nf  Δs : shot interval
2s ng : The number of recording channels

By using this relationship, the following rules can be

established:
• The fold does not change when alternating traces in
each shot record are dropped.
• The fold is halved when every other shot record is
skipped, whether or not alternating traces in each
record are dropped.
Shot Gathers and Midpoints
CMP Gathers
Velocity Analysis
Velocity Analysis

In addition to providing an improved signal-to-noise ratio, multifold coverage

with nonzero-offset recording yields velocity information about the
subsurface. Velocity analysis is performed on selected CMP gathers or
groups of gathers. The output from one type of velocity analysis is a table of
numbers as function of velocity versus two-way zero-offset time (velocity
spectrum). These numbers represent some measure of signal coherency
along the hyperbolic trajectories governed by velocity, offset, and travel time.
Velocity Analysis

The aim of the velocity analysis is to find the velocity, that

flattens a reflection hyperbola, which returns the best result
when stacking is applied. This velocity is not always the real
RMS velocity.

Therefore, a distinction is made between:

•Vstack : The velocity that returns the best stacking result.
•Vrms : The actual RMS-velocity of a layer.

For a horizontal layer and small offsets, both velocities are

similar. When the reflectors are dipping then vstack is not equal
to the actual velocity, but equal to the velocity that results in a
similar reflection hyperbola.
Determine The Velocity

There are different ways to determine the velocity:

• (t2-x2)-Analysis.
• Constant velocity panels (CVP).
• Constant velocity stacks (CVS).
• Analysis of velocity spectra.
For all methods, selected CMP gathers are used.
(t2-x2)-Analysis
The (t2-x2) -Analysis is based on the fact, that the Moveout-expression for
the square of t and x result in a linear event. When different values for x and
t are plotted, the slope can be used to determine v2, the square root returns
the proper velocity.

Example of a t2-x2-Analysis :
Examining the normal moveout equation, it is possible to analyze
NMO velocities by plotting reflections in T2 X2 space.
CVP - Constant Velocity Panels

The NMO-correction is applied for a CMP using different

constant velocities. The results of the different velocities
are compared and the velocity that results in a flattening
of the hyperbolas is the velocity for a certain reflector.
CVS - Constant Velocity Stacks

• Similar to the CVP-method the data is NMO-corrected. This is

carried out for several CMP gathers and the NMO-corrected
data is stacked and displayed as a panel for each different
stacking velocity. Stacking velocities are picked directly from
the constant velocity stack panel by choosing the velocity that
yields the best stack response at a selected event.

• CVP and CVS both have the disadvantage that the velocity is
approximated as good as the distance between two test
velocities. Both methods can be used for quality control and for
analysis of noisy data.
Stacking Velocity
Concept of Constant Velocity Stack as An Aid
to Stacking Velocity Estimation
Velocity-Spectrum

The velocity spectrum is obtained when the stacking

results for a range of velocities are plotted in a panel for
each velocity side by side on a plane of velocity versus
two-way travel-time. This can be plotted as traces or as
iso-amplitudes. This method is commonly used by
interactive software to determine the velocities.
Methods to Calculate The Velocity-Spectrum

• Amplitude of stacking
• Normalized amplitude of stacking
• Semblance
n
Amplitude of Stacking : st   wi ,t
i 1

| st |
Normalized Amplitude of stacking : nst  n


i 1
wi ,t |

1  s 2
t
Semblance : Semblancet   t
n  w 2
i ,t
t i

Wi,t value for i-th trace, time t

Velocity Spectrum

Mapping of the offset axis to the velocity axis

Demonstration of The Velocity Spectra
Constant Velocity Stack (CVS)

One Method to Determine Stacking Velocity is to Use A Constant

Velocity Stack (CVS) for Several CDP Gathers.
Constant Velocity Stack (CVS)

Same CVS Panel of Traces as Before Switching to Variable

Density Color for The Traces to Utilize Dynamic Range.
Constant Velocity Stack (CVS)

Same as Previous Color Panels with Velocity Range Now

Halved to Better Pick Correct Velocities.
Constant Velocity Moveout (CVP) Corrections
(1)
Constant Velocity Moveout (CVP) Corrections
(2)

Velocity ft/s
Influence of Missing Long Offset Traces on
Velocity Spectra
Influence of Missing Long Offset Traces and
Statics on Velocity Spectra
Semblance-Analysis
Error for High Velocities and Large Travel
Times
Velocity analysis and NMO-Correction
• Introduction
Until now we have only discussed data processing methods that improve
the signal of each separate trace. We will now sum different traces, also
called stacked, to improve the signal-to noise ratio and to decrease the
amount of data which will be processed to obtain an image of the
subsurface. Before the stacking, a certain correction is applied on the
different traces by carrying out a velocity analysis.

• A good velocity model is the basis for :

– Stacking (Improvement of S/N-Ratio)
– Appropriate conversion from traveltime into depth
– Geometrical Correction (Migration)
Normal-Moveout (NMO) Correction :
Principle

Reflection hyperbolas horizontal Alignment Stacking

Principle of NMO-Correction. The Reflections are aligned using the

correct velocity, such that the events are horizontally. Then all the
separate traces are stacked (summed).
 The traveltime curve of the reflections for different offset between
source and receiver is calculated using:
2 2 x2
t t 
0 2
vstack

From this formula the NMO-correction can be derived and is given by:

2 x2
t  t0  t ( x) with t ( x)  t  2
0
The Moveout Δt is the difference in traveltime vstack for a receiver at a
distance x from the source and the traveltime t0 for zero-offset distance.
Change of Moveout with Depth
To obtain a flattening of the reflections, the velocity must have the correct value. When
the velocity is too low, the reflection is overcorrected; the reflection curves upwards.
When the velocity is too high, the reflection is undercorrected; the reflection curve
curves downwards.

(a) Reflection is not

corrected
(b) Corrected with proper
velocity
(C) Velocity is too low
(D) Velocity is too high
Low velocities have a
stronger curvature then high
velocities.
Problem of “Stretching” of The Data Caused
by NMO Correction
• NMO is a dynamic correction, that means that the values of a
single trace are shifted with different amounts. This results for
larger offets in a stretching of the data and an artificial
increase of the wavelength occurs.
• This effect is relatively large for horizontal reflections with
low velocities. To reduce the effect of the stretching on the
result of the stacking procedure, the part with severe
stretching of the data is muted from the data (“stretch-mute”).
Problem of “Stretching” of The Data Caused
by NMO Correction

Dynamic correction results in a

stretching of the data, which results in
a artificial increase of the wavelength
NMO Correction and Muting of a Stretched
Zone
Optimum Mute Selection

(a) NMO corrected gather

(b) Subtract gather

Right trace = right trace
Second trace on the right is the
stack of the two near traces of
original gather. Leftmost trace is
the stack of all traces -> Dotted
line indicates the mute zone.

(c) Poor mute choice

Synthetic CMP Gathers Containing Multiples

Water-bottom VM velocity multiples

Primaries + primary (W) VP velocity primaries
+ multiples
NMO Correction Using Primary Velocity
Function
CMP Gathers with Strong Multiples

VM1= slow (water-bottom) multiples NMO corrected data

VM2= fast (peg-leg) multiples using primary velocities
CMP Stack Using Former Gathers
Factors Influencing Velocity Estimates

The accuracy of the velocity analysis is influenced by different factors:

• Moveout of the Reflectio
• Depth of the Reflectors
• Spread length
• Bandwidth of the data
• S/N-Ratio
• Static Corrections
• Dip of the Reflector
• Number of traces
Stacking
Stacking

Stacking is performed by summation of the NMO-corrected

data. The result is an approximation of a zero-offset section,
where the reflections come from below the CMP position.
For a dipping layer, the reflections do not exactly come from
below the CMP.
Methods of Stacking
1. Mean stack
All NMO-corrected traces are summed and divided by the number of
traces:
1 n
st ,mean    wi ,t
n i 1

2. Weighted stack
In certain situations, unequal weighting of the traces in a gather may
yield results that are better than the CMP stack. For example when
certain traces contain a lot of noise. This type of stacking is often used to
suppress multiples by weighting the large-offset data more heavily than
the short-offset traces, because the difference in NMO between
primaries and multiples is larger for larger offsets. A weight factor α is
introduced.
1 n
st ,meanweighted    i wi ,t
n i 1
Methods of Stacking (Continued)
3. Diversity stacking / Min-Max-exclude

• Certain traces are muted and not included in the stacking

procedure. When certain values differ too much from the average
value they can be muted (diversity stacking). This to reduce the
influence of spikes.

• Exclusion of traces with the minimum and maximum amplitudes in

the stacking procedure (min-max-exclusion or alpha-trimmed
stack).
Stacked Section
Velocity Model
Velocity Model
Stacking Velocity Field
CMP Stack
CMP Stack Using Gain Function
Migrated CMP Stack
Residual Static
In an early stage the general static corrections were discussed.
Especially, the correction for the topography and the influence of the
weathered layer were discussed. The aim of the static corrections is
to shift individual traces in such a way that the reflections in a
common midpoint gather lie as accurate as possible along a
hyperbola.

Topographic corrections and refraction statics solve this problem only

for a certain part. Most of the times small shifts between traces
remain. To correct for these small shifts the residual static correction
is applied.
Principle of Residual Statics
The process of residual statics consists of shifting the separate
traces in such a way that the optimal reflections are obtained. To
make sure that the traces of a single CMP are not shifted randomly,
the shift is divided in a value for the source (“source static”) and a
value for the receiver (“receiver static”). For each source and receiver
a value is determined. All traces with a certain source are corrected
with the value for that source. Similarly all traces with a certain
receiver are corrected with the value for that receiver. The resulting
shift (static correction) of a trace consists of the correction value of
the source and receiver of the corresponding trace.

This processing still assumes that the static shifts are caused by the
interface. Therefore, this processing is also called surface
consistent static correction.
Methods to Determine The Residual Statics

• Delay-Time.

• GRM (Generalized Reciprocal Method).

• DRM (Diminishing Residual Matrices).

Scheme of Residual Static Corrections
Dip Move-Out (DMO)
DIP MOVE-OUT (DMO)
DIP MOVE-OUT (DMO)
Loci of Reflection Point
DIP MOVE-OUT (DMO)
Selected CMP Gathers from A 2D Marine
Dataset
Close-up View of The Velocity Spectrum
and CMP Gather
Close-up View of The Velocity Spectrum
and CMP Gather
Velocity analysis and NMO-Correction
Normal-Moveout (NMO) Correction: Principle
Factors Influencing Velocity Estimates
Stacking
Methods of Stacking
Stacked Section
Stacking Velocity Field
CMP Stack
CMP Stack Using Gain Function
Migrated CMP Stack
Residual Static
Principle of Residual Statics
Methods to Determine The Residual Statics
Scheme of Residual Static Corrections
Migration
Definition of Migration
Objectives of Migration
Limitation of Migration
Geometrical Distortion
Point Scatterer
Point Scatterer
Migration / Imaging Algorith
Wavefront Charting
Migration of Individual Reflections Back to
Position of Point Scaterrer
Wavefront Charting
Dipping Layer
Dipping Layer
Synclines
Structural Model of The Subsurface
Stacked Section without Migration
Anticline and Syncline
Methods for (Post stack) Migration
Diffraction Migration
F-K Migration
Wave Equation Migration
Edge Effect
Depth Migration
3-D vs 2-D Migration
Type Migration Cheap/Expensive
Post-/Pre-stack Time/Depth Migration
Subsurface Model Used in Seismic
Processing
No Migration (Note Diffraction)
Partial Prestack Migration or Dip Moveout
Poststack Migration
Prestack Migration
Poststack Migration of Dip Moveout
An Interpretation
 THE END OF
SEISMIC DATA PROCESSING