GEST1006 – All Sections

Logic and Reasoning for Business

Class Logic I / Syllogistic Logic I

Faculty of Business Administration

University of Macau

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
 All, Some and Not (Chapter 3)
 The Logic of Class
 Statement Structure
 Types of Categorical Statements
 Venn Diagrams
 Logical Relations between Categorical Statements
 Venn Diagrams and Logical Relations
 Example 1
 Example 2
 Exercise 1
 Exercise 2
 Exercise 3

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 CLASS / SYLLOGISTIC LOGIC
 Look inside a statement
 See how the structure of a statement is relevant to
logical inference
 In a standard ( 標準 ) syllogistic ( 三段論 ) argument,
there cannot be more than three terms in the argument
 Confined ( 受限 ) to statements with one subject ( 主題 )
and one predicate ( 謂詞 ) only

n
Clustertioof information
In
ma or
fo
rm Claim ( 宣稱 ) /
In f
Informa

at
io Infer ( 推
Information n Statement ( 聲明 ) /
斷) Judgment ( 判斷 )
tion

Informatio
n

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 THE LOGIC OF CLASSES
 Two classes of things, there are four possible outcomes
 One wholly includes the other
 All cars are machines

 One wholly excludes the other

 No men are women

 One at least partly includes the other

 Some QMDS103 students pass the course

 One at least partly excludes the other

 Some QMDS103 students are not from FBA

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 STATEMENT STRUCTURE
 A simple statement has two parts: subject and predicate
 The subject is what we are talking about
 The predicate is what we say of the subject
 Consider the following examples:
The Earth is round
Red fire ants have been found in Kowloon
I love Hong Kong

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 STATEMENT STRUCTURE
 A statement can be either affirmative or negative
 The Moon rotates around the Earth (affirmative - 肯定 )
 The Sun does not rotate around the Earth (negative - 否定 )
 An affirmation or negative statement can affirm or deny completely
or partially
 All ravens ( 烏鴉 ) are black (complete affirmation)
 No swans ( 天鵝 ) are black (complete negative)
 Some ravens are white (partial affirmation)
 Some swans are not white (partial negative)

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 STATEMENT STRUCTURE
 Consider a statement that
 has two basic parts, subject and predicate
 can either affirmative or negative
 Can refer to part or the whole of the subject term
 The structure of a statement can be summed up as follows:

All
are
No SUBJECT PREDICATE
are not
Some

QUANTIFIER COPULA
量词 系词
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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 TYPES OF CATEGORICAL
STATEMENTS
 Categorical statement ( 分類陳述 ) – a definite statement not
involving terms (i.e. connectives) like “if”, “and” or “or”
 Categorical statement can be either affirmative or negative and
either universal or partial
 There are four types of categorical statements:
Affirmative Negative
(AFFIRMO – I affirm) (NEGO – I deny)
universal A E
partial I O

 universal affirmative (type A) All S are P

 universal negative (type E) No S are P
 partial affirmative (type I) Some S are P
 partial negative (type O) Some S are not P
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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 TYPES OF CATEGORICAL
STATEMENTS
 Consider the following statement
All first-year UM students need to live in RC

 Let
 F = first-year UM students (subject)
 H = people who need to live in RC (predicate)

 The statement has the structure “All F are H”

 Universal affirmative statement (type A)

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 TYPES OF CATEGORICAL
STATEMENTS
 Consider the following statement
Some scientists are woman

 Let
 S = scientists
 W = women

 The statement has the structure “Some S are W”

 Partial affirmative statement (type I)

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 TYPES OF CATEGORICAL
STATEMENTS
 Consider the following statement
None of the Lemons are sweet

 Let
 L = lemons
 S = sweet things

 The statement has the structure “No L are S”

 Universal negative statement (type E)

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 TYPES OF CATEGORICAL
STATEMENTS
 Consider the following statement
Good things are not cheap

 Let
 G = good things
 C = cheap things

 The statement has the structure “No G are C”

 Universal negative statement (type E)

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 VENN DIAGRAM
 If all students go to the playground and have all female students
stand inside a circle, can be indicated as:

Non-female students

Female students 13
Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAM
 With two criteria:
 female or non-female
 clever or not clever Non-female students
who are clever

F C

Non-female students
who are not clever

Female students who Female students who

are not clever are clever
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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAM
 All female students are clever

All F are C

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAM
 No female students are clever

No F are C

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAM
 Some female students are clever

Some F are C

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAM
 Some female students are not clever

Some F are not C

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAM
 The four basic types can be summarized are follow:

A: Universal Affirmative Statement E: Universal Negative Statement

All S are P No S are P

I: Partial Affirmative Statement O: Partial Negative Statement

Some S are P Some S are not P

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAM
Exercise 1
State the form of each of the following statements:
1. All typewriters are noisy.
2. Some bald people wear wigs.
3. No guitar has more than twelve strings.
4. Only friends are invited to the party.

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 Multiple Choice(single) Points: 10

State the form of each of the following statements:

1. All typewriters are noisy.
2. Some bald people wear wigs.
3. No guitar has more than twelve strings.
4. Only friends are invited to the party.

A Type A (All S are P)

B Type E (All S are not P)

C Type I (Some S are P)

D Type O (Some S are not P}

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 Multiple Choice(single) Points: 10

State the form of each of the following statements:

1. All typewriters are noisy.
2. Some bald people wear wigs.
3. No guitar has more than twelve strings.
4. Only friends are invited to the party.

A Type A (All S are P)

B Type E (All S are not P)

C Type I (Some S are P)

D Type O (Some S are not P}

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 Multiple Choice(single) Points: 10

State the form of each of the following statements:

1. All typewriters are noisy.
2. Some bald people wear wigs.
3. No guitar has more than twelve strings.
4. Only friends are invited to the party.

A Type A (All S are P)

B Type E (All S are not P)

C Type I (Some S are P)

D Type O (Some S are not P}

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 Multiple Choice(single) Points: 10

State the form of each of the following statements:

1. All typewriters are noisy.
2. Some bald people wear wigs.
3. No guitar has more than twelve strings.
4. Only friends are invited to the party.

A Type A (All S are P)

B Type E (All S are not P)

C Type I (Some S are P)

D Type O (Some S are not P}

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAM
Exercise 1 (Solution)
State the form of each of the following statements:
1. All typewriters are noisy. Type A
2. Some bald people wear wigs. Type I
3. No guitar has more than twelve strings. Type E
4. Only friends are invited to the party. Type A
Who are the people that invited to the party?
All invited to the party are friends

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAM
 Try to see which of the following statements can be reversed:
i. All S are P (Is it the same as “All P are S”?)
ii. No S are P (Is it the same as “No P are S”?)
iii. Some S are P (Is it the same as “Some P are S”?)
iv. Some S are not P (Is it the same as “Some P are not S”?)

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAM
i.All S are P (Is it the same as “All P are S”?)

All S are P All P are S

Can not be reversed, i.e. they are not equivalent.

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAM
ii.No S are P (Is it the same as “No P are S”?)

No S are P No P are S

Can be reversed, i.e. they are equivalent.

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAM
iii.Some S are P (Is it the same as “Some P are S”?)

Some S are P Some P are S

Can be reversed, i.e. they are equivalent.

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAM
iv.Some S are not P (Is it the same as “Some P are not S”?)

Some S are not P Some P are not S

Can not be reversed, i.e. they are not equivalent.

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAM
Exercise 2
Determine whether the following pairs of statement are
logically equivalent:
1. Some female students are clever.
Some clever students are female.
2. Not all students are not hardworking.
Some hardworking people are students.
3. All degree students need to take GE subjects.
Only degree students need to take GE subjects.

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 Multiple Choice(single) Points: 10

Determine whether the following pairs of statement are

logically equivalent:
1. Some female students are clever.
Some clever students are female.
2. Not all students are not hardworking.
Some hardworking people are students.
3. All degree students need to take GE subjects.
Only degree students need to take GE subjects.

A Yes, logically equivalent

B No, not logically equivalent

C Un-deterministic
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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 Multiple Choice(single) Points: 10

Determine whether the following pairs of statement are

logically equivalent:
1. Some female students are clever.
Some clever students are female.
2. Not all students are not hardworking.
Some hardworking people are students.
3. All degree students need to take GE subjects.
Only degree students need to take GE subjects.

A Yes, logically equivalent

B No, not logically equivalent

C Un-deterministic
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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 Multiple Choice(single) Points: 10

Determine whether the following pairs of statement are

logically equivalent:
1. Some female students are clever.
Some clever students are female.
2. Not all students are not hardworking.
Some hardworking people are students.
3. All degree students need to take GE subjects.
Only degree students need to take GE subjects.

A Yes, logically equivalent

B No, not logically equivalent

C Un-deterministic
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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAM
Exercise 2 (Solution)
Determine whether the following pairs of statement are
logically equivalent:
1. Some female students are clever. Equivalent
Some clever students are female.

Some F are C Some C are F

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAM
Exercise 2 (Solution)
Determine whether the following pairs of statement are
logically equivalent:
2. Not all students are not hardworking. Equivalent
Some hardworking people are students.

Not All S are not H Some H are S

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Some S are H
Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAM
Exercise 2 (Solution)
Determine whether the following pairs of statement are
logically equivalent:
3. All degree students need to take GE subjects. Not equivalent
Only degree students need to take GE subjects.

All D are G All G are D

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 LOGICAL RELATION BETWEEN
CATEGORICAL STATEMENT

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 LOGICAL RELATION BETWEEN
CATEGORICAL STATEMENT
 Contradiction ( 矛盾 )
 The two statements cannot be both true and they cannot be both false
 One of the two statements must be true, and the other must be false
 For example
Today is Tuesday.
Today is not Tuesday.

No politicians are honest.

Some politicians are honest.

More Examples

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 LOGICAL RELATION BETWEEN
CATEGORICAL STATEMENT
 Contrariety ( 對立 )
 The two statements cannot be both true, but they can be both false
 For example
All students pass the mid-term test.
No students pass the mid-term test.

More Examples

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 LOGICAL RELATION BETWEEN
CATEGORICAL STATEMENT
 Sub-contrariety ( 分對立 )
 The two statements can be both true, but they cannot be both false
 For example
Some students pass the mid-term test.
Some students do not pass the mid-term test.

More Examples

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 LOGICAL RELATION BETWEEN
CATEGORICAL STATEMENT
 Implication ( 牽連，暗示 )
 The truth of the first statement implies the truth of the second statement
 For example
All students pass the mid-term test.
Some students pass the mid-term test.

More Examples

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 LOGICAL RELATION BETWEEN
CATEGORICAL STATEMENT
 Equivalence ( 相等 )
 The truth values of the two statements are identical
 One statement is true, the other must also be true
 One statement is false, the other must also be false
 It is impossible for one statement to true and the other has different
value
 For example
Some politicians ( 政治家 ) are Christians.
Some Christians are politicians.

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 LOGICAL RELATION BETWEEN
CATEGORICAL STATEMENT Summary of Logical Relati
ons

 Indifference ( 無關 )
 The truth value of one statement has no bearing on the other
 That’s to say, the truth values of the two statements are independent of
each other
 For example
The profit tax will increase by 2%.
The salary tax will increase by 1%.
 The next example is less obvious:
All good things are expensive.
All expensive things are good.

All G are E All E are G 51

Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAM & LOGICAL
RELATIONS
 Venn diagram can be used to determine the logical relation of two
statements by comparing the corresponding diagrams of the two
statements
 whether two statements are compatible with each other
 whether one is exact negation of the other
 whether one statement implies another

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAM & LOGICAL
RELATIONS
Example 1
Do the following statements mean the same?
“All geniuses ( 天才 ) are lonely people”
“All lonely people are geniuses”

The two statements do not mean the same, they

are not equivalent, actually they are indifference

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAM & LOGICAL
RELATIONS
Example 2
Consider the following two statements whether they are contradict.
“All boys are fat”
“Some boys are fat”

There is no contradiction when we put the two diagrams

together into one. So the two statements are not contradictory
to each other. In fact, it is an implication.
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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAM & LOGICAL
RELATION
Exercise 3
Name the logical relation between the two statements.
1. All men-made objects are machines.
Some men-made objects are not machines.
2. Some professors are not book writers.
Some book writers are professors.
3. At least one student pass the special mock exam.
At least one student does not pass the special mock exam.

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 Multiple Choice(single) Points: 10

Name the logical relation between the two statements.

1. All men-made objects are machines.
Some men-made objects are not machines.

A Contradiction

B Contrariety

C Sub-contrariety

D Implication

E Equivalent

F Indifference
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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 Multiple Choice(single) Points: 10

Name the logical relation between the two statements.

2. Some professors are not book writers.
Some book writers are professors.

A Contradiction

B Contrariety

C Sub-contrariety

D Implication

E Equivalent

F Indifference
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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 Multiple Choice(single) Points: 10

Name the logical relation between the two statements.

3. At least one student pass the special mock exam.
At least one student does not pass the special mock
exam.

A Contradiction

B Contrariety

C Sub-contrariety

D Implication

E Equivalent

F Indifference
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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAM & LOGICAL
RELATION
Exercise 3 (Solution)
Name the logical relation between the two statements.
1. All men-made objects are machines.
Some men-made objects are not machines.

All M are A Contradiction Some M are not A

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAM & LOGICAL
RELATION
Exercise 3 (Solution)
Name the logical relation between the two statements.
2. Some professors are not book writers.
Some book writers are professors.

Sub-contrariety

Some P are not W Some W are P

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAM & LOGICAL
RELATION
Exercise 3 (Solution)
Name the logical relation between the two statements.
3. At least one student pass the special mock exam.
At least one student does not pass the special mock exam.

Sub-contrariety

Some S are P Some S are not P

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  End of Class Logic I 

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 LOGICAL RELATIONS (SUMMARY)
Contradiction The two statements cannot be both true and they
cannot be both false. One of the two statements
must be true, and the other must be false.

Contrariety The two statements cannot be both true, but they

can be both false.

Sub- The two statements can be both true, but they

contrariety cannot be both false

Implication The truth of the first statement implies the truth of

the second statement

Equivalent The truth values of the two statements are identical

Indifferent The truth value of one statement has no bearing on

the other. That’s to say, the truth values of the two
statements are independent of each other

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 VENN DIAGRAMS FOR p & q

all p are q all q are p all p are not q all q are not p

some p are q some q are p some p are not q some q are not p

no p are q no q are p no p are not q no q are not p

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 VENN DIAGRAMS FOR p & q
(special)

all not p are q all not q are p all not p are not q all not q are not p

some not p are q some not q are p some not p are not q some not q are not p

no not p are q no not q are p no not p are not q no not q are not p

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 VENN DIAGRAMS FOR p & q
(grouped)

all p are q all q are p all p are not q all not p are q
no p are not q no q are not p no p are q no not p are not q
all not q are not p all not p are not q all q are not p all not q are p
no not q are p no not p are q no q are p no not q are not p
Type A Type A Type E Type A

some p are not q some q are not p some p are q some not p are not q
some not q are p some not p are q some q are p some not q are not p
Type O Type O Type I Type O

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 VENN DIAGRAMS -
CONTRADICTION

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 VENN DIAGRAMS - CONTRARIETY

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 VENN DIAGRAMS – SUB-
CONTRARIETY

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 VENN DIAGRAMS - IMPLICATION

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Philip Pun, First Semester 2021/2022
 NOT OF QUANTIFIER
We always heard people saying in the following manner:

 Not all of CS101 students pass the exam,

some students pass the exam,
some students fail (NOT pass) the exam.

 Not only some of CS101 students pass the exam,

but all of them (i.e. CS101 students) pass the exam.

 Not some of CS101 students pass the exam,

but all of them (i.e. CS101 students) fail (NOT pass) the
exam.

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