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Chapter Six Personality

This document provides an overview of personality theories including psychoanalytic theory, trait theory, and the five factor model. It defines personality and differentiates it from character and temperament. It describes Freud's structural model of the id, ego, and superego and how they interact. It explains various psychological defense mechanisms. It then discusses trait theory and the five factor model known as OCEAN which describes the five dimensions of openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
99 views142 pages

Chapter Six Personality

This document provides an overview of personality theories including psychoanalytic theory, trait theory, and the five factor model. It defines personality and differentiates it from character and temperament. It describes Freud's structural model of the id, ego, and superego and how they interact. It explains various psychological defense mechanisms. It then discusses trait theory and the five factor model known as OCEAN which describes the five dimensions of openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Uploaded by

abera
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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CHAPTER SIX PERSONALITY

“One of the greatest regrets in life is being what others would want you to be,
rather than being yourself”. Shannon L. Alder

Dear student, based on the above quote reflect on the following questions please?

1. What makes an individual different from others?


2. What do you think are the sources of personality difference among individuals?
3. Have you been asked to be a kind of person what others would want you to be?
4. Is there a big difference between what you want to be and what others want you
to be?
Learning Outcomes After completion of this chapter, you will be able to:
Define personality
 Discuss the natures of psychoanalytic theory
 Identify the structures of personality
Explain psychological defense mechanisms
Explain the essence of the trait theory of personality
Discuss the five factor model of personality
Explain the essence of humanistic theory of personality
6.1. Meaning of Personality

The word personality is derived from the word ‘persona‘, which has Greek
and Latin roots and
 refers to the theatrical masks worn by Greek actors. Personality has been
defined in many
different ways, but psychologists generally view personality as the unique
pattern of enduring thoughts, feelings, and actions that characterize a
person.
 Personality should not be confused with character, which refers to value
judgments made about a person‘s morals or ethical behavior; nor should it
be confused with temperament, the enduring characteristics with which
each person is born, such as irritability or adaptability.
However, both character and temperament are vital personalities.
6.2. Theories of Personality

6.2.1. The psychoanalytic theory of personality

The psychoanalytic theory was formulated by


the Austrian physician named Sigmund Freud.
According to Freud, personality is formed
within ourselves, arising from basic inborn
needs, drives, and characteristics.

He argued that people are in constant conflict between their biological urges
(drives) and the need to tame them.
The psychoanalytic theory includes a theory of personality structure.

In Freud's view, personality has three parts which serves a different
function and develops at different times: the id, the ego, and the
superego.

According to Freud, the way these three parts of personality interact


with one another determines the personality of an individual.
 Freud’s idea
of the mind’s
structure
Id: If It Feels Good, Do It

The first and most primitive part of the personality in the infant is the id. The Id is
a Latin word that means ‘it ‘.

The id is a completely unconscious amoral part of the personality that exists at


birth, containing all of the basic biological drives; hunger, thirst, sex, aggression,
for example.

When these drives are active, the person will feel an increase in not only physical
tension but also in psychological tension that Freud called libido, the instinctual
energy that may come into conflict with the demands a society‘s standards for
behavior.
When libidinal energy is high, it is unpleasant for the person, so the goal is to
reduce libido by fulfilling the drive; Eat when hungry, drink when thirsty, and
satisfy the sex when the need for pleasure is present.

Freud called this need for satisfaction

The pleasure principle, which can be defined as the desire for immediate
satisfaction of needs with no regard for the consequences. The pleasure
principle can be summed up simply as ‘if it feels good, do it.’
Ego: The Executive Director-

According to Freud, to deal with reality, the second part of personality develops
called the ego.

The ego, from the Latin word for ‘I’, is mostly conscious and is far more rational,
logical and cunning than the id.

The ego works on the reality principle, which is the need to satisfy the demands of
the id and reduce libido only in ways that will not lead to negative consequences.

This means that sometimes the ego decides to deny the id its drives because the
consequence would be painful or too unpleasant.
If a 6-month-old child sees an object and wants it, she will reach out and grab it despite
her parent‘s frantic cries of “No, no!”.

The parent will have to pry the object out of the baby‘s hands, with the baby protesting
mightily all the while.

But if the same child is about 2 years old, when she reaches for the object and the parent
shouts “No!” she will most likely draw back her hand without grabbing the object
because her ego has already begun to develop.

In the first case, the infant has only the id to guide her behavior, and the id wants to grab
the object and doesn‘t care what the parent says or does. But the 2 years old has an ego
and that ego knows that the parent‘s ‘No!’ may very well be followed by punishment, an
unpleasant consequence.
The 2 years old child will make a more rational, more logical decision to wait
until the parent isn‘t looking and then grab the object and run.

A simpler way of stating the reality principle is ‘if it feels good, do it, but only if
you can get away with it.’
Superego: The Moral Watchdog

The moral center of personality, the superego.


 The superego (also Latin, meaning (over the self) develops as a preschool-aged child
learns the rules, customs, and expectations of society.
There are two parts to the superego: the ego ideal and the conscience.
 The ego-ideal is a kind of measuring device.
It is the sum of all the ideal or correct and acceptable behavior that the child has
learned about from parents and others in the society.
All behavior is held up to this standard and judged by the conscience.
The conscience is part of the personality that makes people pride when they do the
right thing and guilt, or moral anxiety when they do the wrong thing.
For Freud, our personality is the outcome of the continual battle for dominance
among the id, the ego, and the superego.

This constant conflict between them is managed by psychological defense


mechanisms.

Defense mechanisms are unconscious tactics that either prevent threatening


material from surfacing or disguise it when it does.

Some of the psychological defense mechanisms are discussed below.


Repression is a defense mechanism that involves banishing threatening thoughts, feelings, and memories
into the unconscious mind.
Eg. an Ethiopian husband who is defeated by his wife will not remember/ talk it out again.

Denial: is refusal to recognize or acknowledge a threatening situation.


Eg.Mr. Geremew is an alcoholic who denies/ doesn‘t accept being an alcoholic.

 Regression: involves reverting to immature behaviors that have relieved anxiety in the past.
Eg. a girl/a boy who has just entered school may go back to sucking her/his thumb or
wetting the bed.

Rationalization: giving socially acceptable reasons for one's inappropriate behavior.


Eg. make bad grades but states the reason as being knowledge rather than grade oriented;
and grades only showing superficial learning.
• Displacement: the defense mechanism that involves expressing feelings
toward a person who is less threatening than the person who is the true target
of those feelings. Example: Hating your boss but taking it out on family
members.
• Projection: the defense mechanism that involves attributing one's undesirable
feelings to other people. Example: a paranoid person uses projection to justify
isolation and anger.
• Reaction formation: a defense mechanism that involves a tendency to act in
a manner opposite to one's true feelings. Example: a person who acts
conservation but focuses on violence in their behavior.
• Sublimation: defense mechanism that involves expressing sexual or
aggressive behavior through indirect, socially acceptable outlets. Example: an
aggressive person who loves playing football.
6.2.2. The trait theory of personality

Psychologists who take the trait approach see personality as a combination


of stable internal characteristics that people display consistently over time
and across situations.

Trait theorists seek to measure the relative strength of the many personality
characteristics that they believe are present in everyone.

The trait approach to personality makes three main assumptions:


1. Personality traits are relatively stable, and therefore predictable, over time.
So a gentle person tends to stay the same way across time.

2. Personality traits are relatively stable across situations, and they can explain
why people act in predictable ways in many different situations.
Eg, A person who is competitive at work will probably also be competitive on
the tennis court or at a party.

3. People differ in how much of a particular personality trait they possess; no


two people are exactly alike on all traits. The result is an endless variety of
unique personalities.
Though the history of the trait theory of personality has come through different
stages, our attention here will be paid on the five-factor model or the Big Five
theory.

The five trait dimensions can be remembered by using the acronym OCEAN, in
which each of the letters is the first letter of one of the five dimensions of
personality.

 Openness can best be described as a person‘s willingness to try new things and be
open to new experiences.
People who try to maintain the status quo and who don‘t like to change things would
score less on openness.
Conscientiousness refers to a person‘s organization and motivation, with people
who score high in the dimension being those who are careful about being in
places on time and careful with belongings as well.

Someone scoring low on this dimension, for example, might always be late to
important social events or borrow belongings and fail to return them or return in
poor coordination.

Extraversion is a term first used by Carl Jung, who believed that all people
could be divided into two personality types: extraverts and introverts.
> Extraverts are outgoing and sociable,
> Introverts are more solitary and dislike being the center of attention.
Agreeableness refers to the basic emotional style of a person, who may be
easygoing, friendly and pleasant (at the high end of the scale) or grumpy,
crabby and hard to get along with (at the low end).

Neuroticism refers to emotional instability or stability. People who are


excessively worried, overanxious and moody would score high on this
dimension, whereas those who are more even-tempered and calm could
score low.
The “Big Five” Personality Factors

Trait Dimension Description


(Neuroticism) Emotional Stability Calm versus anxious
Secure versus insecure
Self-satisfied versus self-pitying
Extraversion Sociable versus retiring
Fun-loving versus sober
Affectionate versus reserved
Openness Imaginative versus practical
Preference for variety versus
preference for routine
Independent versus conforming
Agreeableness( Warmth) Soft-hearted versus ruthless
Trusting versus suspicious
Helpful versus uncooperative
Conscientiousness Organized versus disorganized
Careful versus careless
Disciplined versus impulsive
6.2.3. Humanistic theory of personality

Humanistic approaches to personality emphasize people‘s inherent goodness


and their tendency to move toward higher levels of functioning instead of
seeing people as controlled by the unconscious, unseen forces (psychodynamic
approaches), and a set of stable traits (trait approaches).

 It is this conscious, self-motivated ability to change and improve, along with


people‘s unique creative impulses, that humanistic theorists argue make up the
core of personality.

Humanists such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow wanted psychology to


focus on the things that make people uniquely human, such as subjective
emotions and the freedom to choose one‘s destiny.
As Maslow‘s theory discussed in Chapter Five, in this chapter the discussion of
the humanistic view of personality focus on the theory of Carl Rogers.
Carl Rogers and Self-Concept

Like Maslow, Rogers believed that human beings are always striving to fulfill their
innate capacities and capabilities and to become everything that their genetic
potential will allow them to become.

This striving for fulfillment is called self-actualizing tendency.

An important tool in human self-actualization is the development of an image of


oneself or the self-concept.

The self-concept is based on what people are told by others and how the sense of self
is reflected in the words and actions of important people in one‘s life, such as
parents, siblings, coworkers, friends, and teachers
Real and Ideal Self

Self-concept
Real self (one‘s actual perception of characteristics, traits, and abilities that form the basis of the
striving for self-actualization)
Ideal self (the perception of what one should be or would like to be). The ideal self primarily
comes from those important, significant others in one‘s life, most often the parents.
According to Rogers
when the real self and the ideal self are very
close or similar to each other, people feel
competent and capable,

when there is a mismatch between the real and


ideal selves, anxiety and neurotic behavior
can be the result.
The two halves of the self are more likely to match if they aren‘t that far apart at the
start.

When one has a realistic view of the real self, and the ideal self is attainable, there
usually isn‘t a problem of a mismatch.

 It is when a person‘s view of self is distorted or the ideal self is impossible to attain
that problems arise.

 Once again, it is primarily how the important people (who can be either good or bad
influences) in a person‘s life react to the person that determines the degree of
agreement between real and ideal selves.
Conditional and Unconditional Positive
Regard- Rogers defined positive regard as warmth, affection, love, and respect that
comes from the significant others (parents, admired adults, friends, and teachers) in
people‘s experience.

Positive is vital to people‘s ability to cope with stress and to strive to achieve self-
actualization.

Rogers believed that unconditioned positive regard, or love, affection and respect
with no strings attached, is necessary for people to be able to explore fully all that
they can achieve and become.

Unfortunately, some parents, spouses, and friends give conditional positive regard,
which is love, affection, respect and warmth that depend, or seem to depend, on doing
what those people want.
For Rogers, a person who is in the process of self-actualizing, activity exploring
potentials and abilities and experiencing a match between real and ideal selves is a fully
functioning person.

Fully functioning people are in touch with their feelings and


abilities and can trust their innermost urges and intuitions.

To become a fully functioning, a person needs unconditional


positive regard.
 Although self-actualization and ‘to be fully functioning’ are highly related
concepts, there are some subtle differences.

Self-actualization is a goal that people are always striving to reach, according


to Maslow (1987).

In Rogers's view, only a person who is fully functioning


is capable of reaching the goal of self-actualization .

To be fully functioning is a necessary step in the process of self-actualization.


Maslow (1987) listed several people that he considered to be self-actualized people:
Albert Einstein,
Mahatma Gandhi,
Eleanor Roosevelt,
Nelson Mandela
These were people that Maslow found to have the self-actualized qualities of
being creative, autonomous and unprejudiced.
 In Roger's view, these same people would be seen as having trusted their true
feelings and innermost needs rather than just going along with the crowd, a
description that certainly seems to apply in these three cases.
///////////////////////// End of chapter six//////////////////
CHAPTER SEVEN
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS AND TREATMENT TECHNIQUES

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you are expected to:

Describe how psychological disorders are defined, as well as the inherent


difficulties in doing so.
Identify the nature of psychological disorders.
 Explain the causes of psychological disorders.
Identify the different types, characteristic features of psychological disorders.
 Explain different theories to explain the nature of abnormality.
 Discuss the treatment techniques.
Abnormal (ab normal) behavior is a behavior that deviates from the behavior of the
‘typical‘ person; the norm. A society‘s norm can be qualitative and quantitative.

When someone behaves in culturally unacceptable ways and the behaviors he/she
exhibit violates the norm, standards, rules and regulations of the society, this person
is most likely to have a psychological problem.

Only abnormal behavior cannot be sufficient for the diagnosis of psychological problem.
Hence, we need to consider the context in which a person‘s behavior happens.

The context in which ‘abnormal’ behavior occurs must be considered before deciding
that it is symptomatic of psychological disorders.
2. Mala-daptiveness

Maladaptive behavior in one way or another creates a social, personal and occupational problem on those who
exhibit the behaviors.

 These behaviors seriously disrupt the day-to-day activities of individuals that can increase the problem more.

3. Personal Distress
Our subjective feelings of anxiety, stress, tension and other unpleasant emotions determine whether we have a
psychological disorder.

These negative emotional states arise either by the problem itself or by events happen that on us. But, the
criterion of personal distress, just like other criteria, is not sufficient for the presence of psychological
disorder.

This is because of some people like feeling distressed by their own behavior. Hence, behavior that is abnormal,
maladaptive, or personally distressing might indicate that a person has a psychological disorder.
7.2 Causes of Psychological Disorders (Based on Perspectives)

7.2.1 The Biological Perspective

Current researchers believe that abnormalities in the working of chemicals


in the brain, called neurotransmitters, may contribute to many
psychological disorders.

For example, over activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine, perhaps


caused by an overabundance of certain dopamine receptors in the brain,
has been linked to the bizarre(strange) symptoms of schizophrenia.
7.2.2 Psychological Perspectives

In this part, we will examine three psychological perspectives:


the psychoanalytic perspective,
the learning,
the cognitive behavioral perspectives.

A. Psychoanalytic perspective
Sigmund Freud, the founder of the psychoanalytic approach, believed that the
human mind consists of three interacting forces: the id (a pool of biological
urges), the ego (which mediates between the id and reality), and the superego
(which represent society‘s moral standards).
Abnormal behavior, in Freud’s view, is caused by the ego’s
inability to manage
the conflict between the opposing demands of the id and the superego.

Especially important is the individuals‘ failure to manage the conflicting of id’s sexual
impulses during childhood, and society’s sexual morality to resolve the earlier childhood
emotional conflicts that determine how to behave and think later.

B. Learning perspective

Most mental and emotional disorders, in contrast to the psychoanalytic perspective, arise
from inadequate or inappropriate learning. People acquire abnormal behaviors through
the various kinds of learning.
C. Cognitive perspective

Whether we accept it or not, the quality of our internal dialogue either builds
ourselves up or tear ourselves down and has profound effect on our mental
health.

The main theme of this perspective is that self-defeating thoughts lead to the
development of negative emotions and self-destructive behaviors.

People's ways thinking about events in their life determines their emotional and
behavioral patterns.
Most of the time our thinking patterns in one way or another affects our
emotional and behavioral wellbeing in either positive or negative ways.

Hence, if there is a disturbance in on our thinking, it may manifest in our


display of emotions and behaviors.

Our environmental and cultural experiences in our life play a major role in
the formation of our thinking style.
7.3. Types of Psychological Disorders

A psychological disorder is a condition characterized by abnormal thoughts,


feelings, and behaviors.

Psychopathology is the study of psychological disorders, including their


symptoms, etiology (i.e., their causes), and treatment.

The term psychopathology can also refer to the manifestation of a psychological


disorder.

In this connection, there are many types of psychological disorders, but here in
this section we will try to see only types of mood disorder, anxiety disorder and
personality disorder.
1) Mood Disorders

Mood disorders are characterized by a serious change in mood from


depressed to elevated feelings causing disruption to life activities.

Depressive disorder is characterized by overall feelings of desperation and


inactivity. Elevated moods are characterized by mania or hypomania. The
cycling between both depressed and manic moods is characteristic of
bipolar mood disorders.
In addition to type and subtype of mood, these disorders also vary in intensity and
severity.

For example, dysthymic disorder is a lesser form of major depression and


cyclothymic disorder is recognized as a similar, but less severe form of bipolar
disorder.

If you have a mood disorder, your general emotional state or mood is distorted or
inconsistent with your circumstances and interferes with your ability to function.

You may be extremely sad, empty or irritable (depressed), or you may have periods
of depression alternating with being excessively happy (mania).
The disorders in this category include those where the primary symptom is a
disturbance in mood.

The disorders include Major Depression, Dysthymic Disorder, Bipolar


Disorder, and Cyclothymia.

1) Major Depression (also known as depression or clinical depression) is


characterized by depressed mood, diminished interest in activities previously
enjoyed, weight disturbance, sleep disturbance, loss of energy, difficulty
concentrating, and often includes feelings of hopelessness and thoughts of
suicide.
2) Dysthymia is often considered a lesser, but more persistent form of
depression. Many of the symptoms are similar except to a lesser
degree. Also, dysthymia, as opposed to Major Depression is steadier
rather than periods of normal feelings and extreme lows.

3) Bipolar Disorder (previously known as Manic-Depression) is


characterized by periods of extreme highs (called mania) and extreme
lows as in Major Depression. Bipolar Disorder is subtyped either I (extreme
or hypermanic episodes) or II (moderate or hypomanic episodes).

4) Cyclothymia: Like Dysthymia and Major Depression, Cyclothymia is


considered a lesser form of Bipolar Disorder.
2) Anxiety Disorders

Anxiety is a normal reaction to stress and can be beneficial in some situations. It


can alert us to dangers and help us prepare and pay attention.

Anxiety disorders differ from normal feelings of nervousness or anxiousness, and


involve excessive fear or anxiety.

Anxiety disorders are the most common of mental disorders and affect nearly 30
percent of adults at some point in their lives.
However, anxiety disorders are treatable and a number of effective treatments are
available.

 Treatment helps most people lead normal productive lives.


Anxiety disorders can cause people into trying to avoid situations that trigger or worsen
their symptoms.
Eg.Job performance, school work and personal relationships can be affected.
In general, for a person to be diagnosed with an anxiety disorder, the fear or anxiety must:
ѰBe out of proportion to the situation or age inappropriate
ѰHinder your ability to function normally

Anxiety Disorders categorize a large number of disorders where the primary feature is
abnormal or inappropriate anxiety.

The disorders in this category include Panic Disorder, Agoraphobia, Specific Phobias,
Social Phobia, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and
Generalized Anxiety Disorder.
a) Panic Disorder is characterized by a series of panic attacks. A panic attack is
an inappropriate intense feeling of fear or discomfort including many of the
following symptoms: heart palpitations, trembling, shortness of breath, chest
pain, dizziness.

 These symptoms are so severe that the person may actually believe he or she is
having a heart attack.

In fact, many, if not most of the diagnoses of Panic Disorder are made by a
physician in a hospital emergency room.
b) Agoraphobia literally means fear of the marketplace. It refers to a series of
symptoms where the person fears, and often avoids, situations where escape or
help might not be available, such as shopping centers, grocery stores, or other
public place.
Agoraphobia is often a part of panic disorder if the panic attacks are severe
enough to result in an avoidance of these types of places.

c) Specific or Simple Phobia and Social Phobia represent an intense fear and
often an avoidance of a specific situation, person, place, or thing.
To be diagnosed with a phobia, the person must have suffered significant
negative consequences because of this fear and it must be disruptive to their
everyday life.
d) Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) -is characterized by obsessions
(thoughts which seem uncontrollable) and compulsions (behaviors which act to
reduce the obsession).

Most people think of compulsive hand washers or people with an intense fear of
dirt or of being infected.

These obsessions and compulsions are disruptive to the person's everyday life,
with sometimes hours being spent each day repeating things, which were
completed successfully already such as checking, counting, cleaning, or bathing.
e) Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) occurs only after a person is
exposed to a traumatic event where their life or someone else's life is
threatened.
 Eg- war, natural disasters, major accidents, and severe child abuse.
Once exposed to an incident such as this, the disorder develops into an
intense fear of related situations, avoidance of these situations, reoccurring
nightmares, flashbacks, and heightened anxiety to the point that it
significantly disrupts their everyday life.
f) Generalized Anxiety Disorder- is diagnosed when a person has extreme
anxiety in nearly every part of their life.

It is not associated with just open places (as in agoraphobia), specific
situations (as in specific phobia), or a traumatic event (as in PTSD).

The anxiety must be significant enough to disrupt the person's everyday


life for a diagnosis to be made.
3) Personality Disorders

A personality disorder is a type of mental disorder in which you have a rigid


and unhealthy pattern of thinking, functioning and behaving.

A person with a personality disorder has trouble perceiving and relating to


situations and people.

Thus, personality disorders are characterized by an enduring pattern of


thinking, feeling, and behaving which is significantly different from the
person's culture and results in negative consequences.

This pattern must be longstanding and inflexible for a diagnosis to be made.


There are around nine types of personality disorders, all of which result in significant
distress and/or negative consequences within the individual:

1) Paranoid (includes a pattern of distrust and suspiciousness).

2) Schizoid (pattern of detachment from social norms and a restriction of


emotions).
lacks interest and desire to form relationships with others; aloof and shows
emotional coldness and detachment; indifferent to approval or criticism of
others; lacks close friends or confidants; not due to schizophrenia or other
psychotic disorders, not an autism spectrum disorder
3) Schizotypal (pattern of discomfort in close relationships and eccentric thoughts
and behaviors).

Exhibits oddness in thought, perception, emotion, speech, and behavior; shows


suspiciousness or paranoia; has unusual perceptual experiences; speech is often
personal; displays inappropriate emotions; lacks friends or confidants; not due
to schizophrenia or other psychotic disorder, or to autism spectrum disorder

4) Antisocial (pattern of disregard for the rights of others, including violation of


these rights and the failure to feel empathy).
5) Borderline (pattern of instability in personal relationships, including frequent bouts of
clinginess and affection and anger and resentment(anger), often cycling between these two
extremes rapidly).

6) Histrionic (pattern of excessive emotional behavior and attention seeking).

7) Narcissistic (pattern of grandiosity, exaggerated self-worth, and need for admiration).

8) Avoidant (pattern of feelings of social inadequacies, low self-esteem, and


hypersensitivity to criticism).

9) Obsessive-Compulsive (pattern of obsessive cleanliness, perfection, and control).


7.4 Treatment Techniques

Treatment of mental illnesses can take various forms. They can include medication, talk
therapy, a combination of both, and can last only one session or take many years to
complete.
Many different types of treatment are available, but most agree that the core components
of psychotherapy remain the same. Psychotherapy consists of the following:
1. A positive, healthy relationship between a client or patient and a trained psychotherapist
2. Recognizable mental health issues, whether diagnosable or not
3. Agreement on the basic goals of treatment
4. Working together as a team to achieve these goals
With these commonalities in mind, this chapter will summarize the different types of
psychotherapy, including treatment approaches and modalities and will describe the
different professionals who perform psychotherapy.
Important element of treatment

First and foremost is empathy.


 It is a requirement for a successful practitioner to be able to understand his or
her client's feelings, thoughts, and behaviors.
 Second, being nonjudgmental is vital if the relationship and treatment are
going to work.
Everybody makes mistakes, everybody does stuff they aren't proud of. If your
therapist judges you, then you don't feel safe talking about similar issues again.
The therapist must have experience with issues similar to yours, be abreast of
the research, and be adequately trained.
The three main branches include

Humanistic
 Cognitive,
Behavioral, and
Psycho-Dynamic.
CHAPTER EIGHT INTRODUCTION TO LIFE SKILLS

At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:


 Define life skills.
 Describe features of life skills.
 Identify components of life skill, and
Give illustrative examples of life skills and analyze its features.
8.1. Nature and Definition of Life skills

As defined in the document of World Health Organization life skills are “abilities for adaptive and
positive behavior that enable individuals to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of
everyday life.”

It is also defined as “behavioral changes or behavioral development approach designed to address a
balance of three areas: knowledge attitude and skills” (UNICEF‟s definition).

Life skills are essentially those abilities that help to promote mental well-being and competence in
young people as they face the realities of life.

Hence, students who are able to understand and use these skills, along with their educational
qualifications, will be better placed to take advantage of educational and employment
opportunities.
8.3. Components of Life Skills

Critical thinking
Self- confidence
 If someone is able to develop them at
 Self-awareness
least to an average level, s/he can lead
 Self- esteem a better and peaceful life. Moreover, to
 Decision making be effective in life, one has to develop
 Interpersonal relationship skills of expressing views, challenging
 Reflective communication stereotypes, making connections,
thinking creatively, getting good
 Peer resistance advices, managing time, learning how
 Knowing rights and duties to learn, listening actively, and the like.
 Problem solving
Critical thinking - thinking more effectively within curricular subject areas,
understanding the reasoning employed, assessing independently and
appropriately, and solving problems effectively. It involves, as well, improved
thinking skills in dealing with real life problems in assessing information and
arguments in social contexts and making life decisions.

Self-confidence – is the degree to which one can rely on his/her ability to


perform certain behavior alone or in public. It is individual‘s trust in his or her
own abilities, capacities, and judgments, or belief that he or she can
successfully face day-to-day challenges and demands (Psychology Dictionary
Online).
Self-awareness – knowledge and understanding of one‘s strengthens and weaknesses.
Selfawareness involves monitoring our inner worlds, thoughts, emotions, and beliefs.
It is important, because it is a major mechanism influencing personal development.
 Self-esteem - the degree to which we perceive ourselves positively or negatively; our
overall attitude toward ourselves, which can be measured explicitly or implicitly.
Decision-making - Processes involved in combining and integrating available
information to choose, implement and evaluate one out of several possible courses of
actions.
Interpersonal relationships – the relationships a person have with others persons.
They are social associations, connections, or affiliations between two or more people
having various levels of intimacy and sharing, and implying the discovery or
establishment of common ground.
Reflective communication - attending communications with thoughtful and due
attention to reflect on one‘s own thinking, behaviors and interaction with others.
Peer pressure resistance – individual‘s abilities and skills to confront negative
influences from his/her group members.
Knowing rights and duties – One‘s knowledge and understanding of rights and
duties of individuals, groups, institutions and nations allowed to do or not to do
by law and/or a culture.
Problem solving – the process of identifying a discrepancy between an actual
and desired state of affairs, difficulties, obstacles and complex issues and then
taking action to resolve the deficiency or take advantage of the opportunity.
8.2. Goals of Life Skills
• The goal of knowing and applying life skills is to lead a smooth and
successful life at home, work place and in social relationship. These
skills help us live in harmony with ourselves and others around us,
select the goods from the bad, choose gold from soil, simplify life that
is full of troubles otherwise etc. Therefore, you are advised to know,
understand and exercise skills of life.
• Life skills are not something we learn only for the sake of academic
life. We rather develop them for effective functioning in our life.
Development of life skills is, therefore, a lifelong process where one
has to update his/her skills and knowledge of dealing with life events.
Life skills are generally applied in the context of academics, workplace and
social events.
 For instance, they can be utilized in many content areas of health: prevention of
drug use, sexual violence, teenage pregnancy, HIV/AIDS prevention and suicide
prevention.
 Its importance can also extend into consumer education, environmental
education, peace education or education for development, livelihood and
income generation, among others.
In short, life skills empower young people to take positive action to protect
themselves and promote health and positive social relationships.
With life skills, one is able to explore alternatives, weigh pros and cons and
make rational decisions in solving each problem or issue as it arises. It also
entails being able to establish productive interpersonal relationships with
others.

Life skills enable effective communication, for example, being able to


differentiate between hearing, listening, and ensuring that messages are
transmitted accurately to avoid miscommunication and misinterpretations.
//////////////// End of chapter EIGHT/////////////////////
CHAPTER NINE
INTRA-PERSONAL AND INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, you are expected to:
Define self-concept, self-awareness, self-esteem, and self-
confidence and illustrate with real life examples;
Describe features of emotional intelligence and anger
management and demonstrate with examples from your
experience;
Explain resilience and coping with stress by taking
different stressors as an example;
Explain critical and creative thinking, problem solving and
decision making by taking hypothetical/real life stories.
9.1. Self-Concept and Self-Awareness

A. Self-concept
 The self is a reflexive phenomenon that develops in social
interaction and is based on the social character of human language
(Gecas, 1982) .

The concept of self provides the philosophical underpinning for


social-psychological inquiries into the self-concept.

The "self-concept," on the other hand, is a product of this reflexive


activity.

It is the concept the individual has of himself/herself as a physical,


social, and spiritual or moral being.
Self-concept has the following important features:

It is the totality of ideas that a person holds about the self
It includes everything the person believes to be true about
himself/herself.
It is composed of relatively permanent self-assessments that of
course changes over time with life experiences and relationships
It is not restricted to the present. It also includes past and future
selves
It is a multi-dimensional construct that refers to an individual's
perception of "self" in relation to a number of characteristics, such
as academics, gender roles, racial identity, and many others
It guides our actions, motivations, expectations and goals for
future
72
B. Self- awareness

Self-awareness is having a clear perception of your personality,


including strengths, weaknesses, thoughts, beliefs, motivation, and
emotions.

It is an attribute(trait) of one‘s self-concept that allows understanding


other people‘s attitudes and responses to them.

High self-awareness is a solid predictor of good success in life,


perhaps because a self-aware person knows when an opportunity is a
good fit for them and how to make an appropriate enterprise work
well.

However, most of us are hardly aware of why we succeed or fail; or


why we behave as we do.
Our minds are so busy with daily hassles that we usually self-
reflect only when something goes awfully wrong.

Our response in challenging situations is often to get defensive,


make excuses, or blame another person, because we do not
want to see our part in the disaster.

 If we can observe ourselves during such incidents, it will be a


good start to self-awareness.
Here are some suggestions to start building self-awareness:

Practice mindfulness (to pay attention on purpose in the


present moment)
Become a good listener
Become more self-aware
Open your mind to new perspectives
Develop self-esteem
Look at yourself objectively
Take feedback from others
Know your strengths and weaknesses
Set intentions and goals
9.2. Self-esteem and self-confidence

A. Self-esteem
"Esteem" is derived from the Latin aestimare, meaning "to
appraise, value, rate, weigh, estimate," and self-esteem is our
cognitive and, above all, emotional evaluation of our own
worth.
More than that, it is the matrix through which we think, feel,
and act, reflects and determines our relation to ourselves, to
others, and to the world.
Self-esteem deals with the evaluative and emotional
dimensions of the self-concept.
Self-evaluation or self-esteem refers to the evaluative and
affective aspects of the self-concept.
Self-esteem refers to an individual's overall self-evaluation. It
is the judgment or opinion we hold about ourselves. It‟s the
extent to which we perceive ourselves to be worthwhile and
capable human beings.

Increasingly, however, various aspects of self-esteem have been


differentiated. However, common to these subdivisions is the
distinction between
(a) self-esteem based on a sense of competence, power, or
efficacy and
(b) self-esteem based on a sense of virtue or moral worth.
 Briefly, competency-based self-esteem is tied closely to
effective performance.

As a result, it is associated with self-attribution and social


comparison processes.

Self-esteem based on virtue (termed self-worth) is grounded


in norms and values concerning personal and interpersonal
conduct e.g. justice, reciprocity, and honor.

The process of reflected appraisal contributes to the


formation of self-worth.
B. Self-confidence

The term confidence comes from the Latin fidere, "to trust."
To be self-confident is to trust in oneself, and, in particular,
in one‘s ability or aptitude to engage successfully or at least
adequately with the world.

A self-confident person is ready to rise to new challenges,


seize opportunities, deal with difficult situations, and take
responsibility if and when things go wrong.
Just as self-confidence leads to successful experience,
successful experience leads to self-confidence.

Although any successful experience contributes to our overall


confidence, it is, of course, possible to be highly confident in
one area, such as cooking or dancing, but very insecure in
another, such as mathematics or public speaking.

Self-confidence is the belief in oneself and abilities, which


describes an internal state made up of what we think and feel
about ourselves.
Sometimes, people use self-confidence and courage
interchangeably.
However, they have differences. In the absence of confidence,
courage takes over.
Confidence operates in the realm of the known, whereas
courage in that of the unknown, the uncertain, and the
fearsome.
 I cannot be confident in diving from a height of 10 meters
unless someone once had the courage to dive from a height of 10
meters.
 Courage is a nobler attribute than confidence because it
requires greater strength, and because a courageous person is
one with limitless capabilities and possibilities.
9.3. Self-Control

Self-control is achieved by refraining from actions we like and


instead performing actions we prefer not to do as a means of
achieving a long-term goal.

People often want to change themselves by, for example,


quitting smoking, going on a diet, studying more effectively,
and so on but they may find it difficult to stick with such long
range goals.

Instead, people often succumb to the lure of an immediate


reward and break with their prior commitment. In other words,
we fail to control ourselves in some meaningful way.
Some researchers have suggested that the act of controlling ourselves is taxing
and makes exercising subsequent self-control more difficult.

It is said that we have a limited ability to regulate ourselves, and if we use our
control resources on unimportant tasks, there will be less available capacity for
the important ones.
9.4. Anger Management

Anger is a state of emotion where a person is irritated by block


of interests, loss of possession or threats to personality.
Everyone gets angry at times.

When people are angry or annoyed, they may walk away or use
a harsh tone of voice. Other times, they may yell, argue, or start
a fight.

If you learn to manage, or control your anger, you can


redirect these surges of anger energy to reach your goal.
When anger is not controlled, conflict becomes worse. Dwelling
on how angry you are doesn’t help to defuse your anger. Instead
your anger can build and lead to temper. At this stage, you may
no longer be able to think clearly.

Below are some of the techniques for managing anger:

Recognize anger as a signal of vulnerability(weakness) - you feel


devalued in some way.

When angry, think or do something that will make you feel more
valuable, i.e., worthy of appreciation.
Do not trust your judgment when angry. Anger magnifies and amplifies
only the negative aspects of an issue, distorting realistic appraisal.

Try to see the complexity of the issue. Anger requires narrow and rigid
focus that ignores or oversimplifies context.

Strive to understand other people's perspectives. When angry you assume


the worst or outright demonize the object of your anger.

Do not justify your anger. Instead, consider whether it will help you act in
your long-term best interest.

Know your physical and mental resources. Anger is more likely to occur
when tired, hungry, sick, confused, anxious, preoccupied, distracted, or
overwhelmed.
Focus on improving and repairing rather than blaming. It's
hard to stay angry without blaming and it's harder to blame
when focused on repairing and improving.

When angry, remember your deepest values. Anger is about


devaluing others, which is probably inconsistent with your
deepest values.

Know that your temporary state of anger has prepared you to


fight when you really need to learn more, solve a problem,
or, if it involves a loved one, be more compassionate.
Therefore, if you are poor at controlling your anger, try to exercise the
suggestions given above whenever you come across with state of anger in your
life.

After sometime, you will make them part of your daily behavior and you may not
need to remember them.
9.5. Emotional Intelligence and Managing Emotion

Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to identify and


manage one‘s own emotions, as well as the emotions of
others.

Emotional intelligence includes at least three skills:


emotional awareness, or the ability to identify and name one‘s
own emotions;
the ability to harness or attach those emotions and apply them
to tasks like thinking and problem solving;
the ability to manage emotions, which includes both regulating
one‘s own emotions when necessary and helping others to do
the same.
Emotional intelligence describes the ability, capacity, skill, or
self- perceived ability to identify, assess, and manage the
emotions of one‟s self, of others, and of groups.

People who possess a high degree of emotional intelligence


know themselves very well and are also able to sense the
emotions of others. They are sociable, strong, and optimistic.
By developing their emotional intelligence, individuals can
become more productive and successful at what they do, and help
others become more productive and successful too.

The process and outcomes of emotional intelligence and its


development also contain many elements known to reduce stress.

Promoting understanding and relationships, fostering stability,


continuity, and harmony helps to develop emotional intelligence
family, organization and society.

Last but not least, it links strongly with concepts of love and
spirituality.
Individuals have different personalities, wants, needs, and
ways of showing their emotions.

In the most generic framework, five domains of emotional


intelligence are divided into personal (self-awareness, self-
regulation, and self-motivation) and social (social awareness
and social skills) competences.
9.6. Stress, Coping with Stress and Resilience
Stress generally refers to two things:
the psychological perception of pressure,
the body's response to it- which involves multiple systems from
metabolism to muscles and memory.
 Some stress is necessary for all living systems as it is the
means by which you encounter and respond to the challenges
and uncertainties of existence.
However, prolonged or repeated arousal of the stress
response, a characteristic of modern life, can have harmful
physical and psychological consequences, including heart
disease, diabetes, anxiety, and depression.
Mainly, stress comes from three categories of stressors: catastrophes, significant life
changes, and daily hassles (stresses).

Catastrophes - Catastrophes are unpredictable, large scale events, such as war and
natural disasters, that nearly everyone appraises as threatening.

Significant Life Changes - the death of a loved one, loss of a job, leaving home,
marriage, divorce, etc. Life transitions and insecurities are often keenly felt during
young adulthood.
Daily life events - our happiness stems less from enduring good
fortune than from our responses to daily events such as a
waiting to hear medical results, perfect exam scores, gratifying
phone call, your team‘s winning the big game and the like.

Although some people can simply shrug off such hassles, others
are easily affected by them.

People‘s difficulties in letting go of unattainable goals is


another everyday stressor with health consequences.
Coping With Stress

Stressors are unavoidable. As they are coupled with heart


disease, depression, and lowered immunity, we need to learn to
cope with the stress in our lives. There are two ways of dealing
with stress: problem focused and emotion-focused.

Problem focused - when we feel a sense of control over a


situation and think we can change the circumstances or change
ourselves, we may address stressors directly, with problem -
focused coping.

For example, if our impatience leads to fight our friend, we


may go directly to that friend to work things out.
Emotion-focused - When we cannot handle the problem or
believe that we cannot change a situation, we may turn to
emotion-focused coping. If, despite our best efforts, we cannot
get along with that friend, we may reach out to other friends to
help address our own emotional needs.
Emotion-focused strategies can be non-adaptive, as when
students worried about not keeping up with the reading in class
go out and party to clear their mind.

A problem-focused strategy (catching up with the reading)


would be more effectively reduce stress and promote
long - term health and satisfaction.
When challenged, some people tend to respond more with cool
problem-focused coping, others with emotion-focused coping.

 Several factors affect the ability to cope successfully, including


feelings of personal control, outlook, and supportive
connections.
Resilience


Adversity is a fact of life and resilience is succeeding in the face of
the adversity. Resilience is about getting through pain and
disappointment without letting them crush your spirit.


In other language, resilience is the quality to come back at least as
strong as before after being knocked down by adversity.


Resilience is the process of adapting well in the face of adversity,
trauma, tragedy, threats or significant sources of stress such as
family and relationship problems, serious health problems or
workplace and financial stressors.

It means "bouncing back" from difficult experiences (APA


definition).
A positive attitude, optimism, the ability to regulate
emotions, and the ability to see failure as a form of helpful
feedback are resilience strategies.

Research shows that optimism helps to blunt the impact of


stress on the mind and body in the wake of disturbing
experiences.

 It gives people access to their cognitive resources, enabling


cool-headed analysis of what might have gone wrong and
consideration of behavioral paths that might be more
productive.
Resilience is not some magical quality but it takes real mental
work to transcend hardship. Even after misfortune, resilient
people are able to change course and move toward achieving
their goals.
Being resilient does not mean that a person does not
experience difficulty or distress.
Emotional pain and sadness are common in people who have
suffered major adversity or trauma in their lives. In fact, the
road to resilience is likely to involve considerable emotional
distress.
Resilience is not a trait that people either have or do not have.
It involves behaviors, thoughts and actions that can be learned
and developed in anyone.
9.7. Critical and Creative Thinking

Critical thinking skills includes decision-making/problem solving


skills and information gathering skills.

The individual must also be skilled at evaluating the future


consequences of their present actions and the actions of others.

They need to be able to determine alternative solutions and to analyze


the influence of their own values and the values of those around them.

Critical thinking is "Purposeful, self-regulatory judgment which results


in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as
explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, contextual
considerations upon which judgment is based (ADEA).
Critical thinking is also regarded as intellectually engaged,
skillful, and responsible thinking that facilitates good judgment
because it requires the application of assumptions, knowledge,
competence, and the ability to challenge one's own thinking.

Critical thinking requires the use of self-correction and


monitoring to judge the rationality of thinking as well as
reflexivity.

When using critical thinking, individuals step back and reflect


on the quality of that thinking (ADEA).
Central goal of contemporary education

is to improve the thinking skills of students, and the


notions of critical thinking and of creative thinking
provide focuses for this effort.

Educators strive for students to be better critical thinkers.

This implies thinking more effectively within curricular


subject areas, understanding the reasoning employed,
assessing independently and appropriately, and solving
problems effectively.
It involves, as well, improved thinking skills in dealing with
real life problems, in assessing information and arguments
in social contexts and making life decisions.

We also want students to be more creative, not simply to


reproduce old patterns but to respond productively to new
situations, to generate new and better solutions to problems,
and to produce original works.
The ability to connect the apparently unconnected and meld existing knowledge
into new insight about some element of how the world works.
These goals of fostering critical thinking and of fostering
creativity are generally considered to be quite separate and
distinct.

Critical thinking is seen as analytic. It is the means for


arriving at judgments within a given framework or context.

Creative thinking, on the other hand, is seen as imaginative,


constructive, and generative. Learn the comparisons given in
the below.
Critical Thinking Creative thinking

Analytic Generative
Convergent Divergent
Vertical Lateral
Probability Possibility
Judgment Suspended judgment
Hypothesis testing Hypothesis forming
Objective Subjective
Answer An answer
Closed Open-ended
Linear Associative
Reasoning Speculating
Logic Intuition
Yes but Yes and
9.8. Problem Solving and Decision Making

Problem solving
Problems are a central part of human life and it is almost impossible to
avoid it.
There are two classes of problems:
1.Well-defined problems are those problems whose goals, path to
solution, and obstacles to solution are clear based on the
information given.
Eg. the problem of how to calculate simple simultaneous equation.
2. Ill-defined problems are characterized by their lack of a clear path
to solution. Such problems often lack a clear problem statement as
well, making the task of problem definition and problem
representation quite challenging.
Eg. the problem of how to find a life partner is an ill-defined
problem.
Problem solving is a process in which we perceive and resolve
a gap between a present situation and a desired goal, with the
path to the goal blocked by known or unknown obstacles.

In general, the problem situation is one not previously


encountered, or where at least a specific solution from past
experiences is not known.
Steps in problem solving

Even though the type, degree and context of the problem vary from
individual to individual, there are activities that should be
accomplished one after the other. The steps are:
1. Recognize or identify the problem.
2. Define and represent the problem mentally.
3. Develop a solution strategy alternatives and select the best one.
4. Organize knowledge about the problem and avail the necessary
resources.
5. Allocate mental and physical resources for solving the problem.
6. Monitor his or her progress toward the goal.
7. Evaluate the solution for accuracy.
Decision-making

People often turn to groups when they must make key


decisions, for groups can draw on more resources than one
individual.
Groups can generate more ideas and possible solutions by
discussing the problem. Groups, too, can evaluate the options
that they generate during discussion more objectively.
Before accepting a solution, a group may stipulate that a certain
number of people must favor it, or that it meets some other
standard of acceptability.
People generally believe that a group‘s decision will be
superior to an individual‘s decision. Groups, however, do not
always make good decisions.

Decision-making is a selection process where one of two or


more possible solutions is chosen to reach a desired goal. The
steps in both problem solving and decision-making are quite
similar. In fact, the terms are sometimes used interchangeably
(Huitt, 1992).
CHAPTER TEN : ACADEMIC SKILLS

Chapter Learning Outcomes


At the end of the chapter, you will be able to;
Describe features of time management
 Explain applications of study skills
Identify note-taking and study skills important for students
Demonstrate test anxiety and its coping mechanisms
Describe goal setting process
 Demonstrate career development skills with examples
10.1. Time Management

Time management is the ability to plan and control how


someone spends the hours in a day to accomplish his or her
goals effectively.

This involves deal with time between the domains of life:


work, home, social life, and hobbies.

It is important to establish clear goals and priorities in order to


set aside non-essential tasks that can waste time, and to
monitor where the time actually goes.
Good time management as deciding what someone wants to get out of life and
efficiently persuing these goals.

Time management does not mean being busy all the time. It means using your time
the way you want to use it which can include large doses of day dreaming and
doing nothing.

Good time management brings with it increasing relaxation, less stress, more
satisfaction and greater accomplishment.
Time is a communal non-renewable resource for all human
beings but abused by many individuals.
Time is not something that we can get back again once passed
although it is a freely available resource.
Many of us do not consider time as a resource and we savagely
spend it without doing something important for our life. Some
people even use it to harm themselves.
Therefore, wise utilization of time is very beneficial for
success, happiness and peace of mind.
Much like money, time is both valuable and limited: it must be
saved, used wisely, and budgeted.
Good time management is essential to success at university.
Planning your time allows you to spread your work over
sessions, avoid a jam of works, and cope with study stress.
Many deadlines for university works occur at the same time.
Hence, unless you plan in advance, you will find it impossible
to manage.
To meet the demands of study, you need to spread your
workload over sessions of time.
Work out what needs to be done and when they should be done.
Plan on how you have to use your available time as efficiently
as possible.
People who practice good time management techniques often
find that they:
Are more productive,
Have more energy for things they need to accomplish,
Feel less stressed,
Are able to do the things they want,
Get more things done,
Relate more positively to others, and
Feel better about themselves.
Finding a time management strategy that works best for individuals
depends on their personality, ability to self-motivate and level of self-
discipline.

By incorporating some, or all of the ten strategies Chapman and


Burpured below, you can manage your time more effectively.

6. Delegate – get help from


others
1. Know how you spend time
7. Stop procrastinating
2. Set priorities
8. Manage external time
3. Use a planning tool
wasters
4. Get organized
9. Avoid multi-tasking
5. Schedule your time appropriately
10. Stay healthy
10.2. Note-taking and Study Skills

Staying organized while taking notes is just as important as


note-taking itself because if you have good notes to study, you
will be more likely to do well in exams.

There are several strategies which will help you stay


organized and take good notes.

However, due to limitation of the scope the module, the


following comprehensive strategies are considered for better
note-taking during classroom lesson.
Getting Organized

Before you go to class, you need to have the necessary


materials such as notebooks and pen.
 Ringed exercise book is usually the most suitable one to have
organized system of note taking.
 It allows you to place your syllabi in the front, insert handouts
by date, and add notes as needed.
It also allows you to remove sections of notes and place them
side by side to create a big picture view of a main points,
chapters, or sections.
Moreover, in order to develop good notes, you have to prepare
yourself and select the best approach to take notes during class.
Before Class

Effective note taking begins prior to class by creating a


framework of reference. This strategy provides familiarity with
terms, ideas and concepts discussed in lecture and leads to an
active role in your own learning. Therefore;

Determine the lecture topic and review past readings and notes
Complete readings assigned to lecture topics and preview any
other auxiliary materials
Prepare questions you may have from the readings
During Class

Depending on the type of class and personal learning style,


you will develop your own method of taking notes. Here are
some guidelines and methods to assist you with the process:
 Date your notes
Keep the objective/theme of the class in mind
Record notes in your own words
Make your notes brief and focus on the pain points
If you fall behind, stop. Make a mark in your notebook,
listen for a few minutes until you feel caught up, then
begin taking notes again. It is better to listen and get the
information later.
Common Note Taking Methods
The following are the three major note-taking methods.

Cornell Method - a systematic and simple method for note taking


that breaks the note page into three sections (Cue column, note-
taking column and summary) to allow for organized recording
and review the main points during lecture.

Outlining - Recording the main ideas of the lecture to the left


margin of the page in your exercise book. Indent more specific
information underneath and further indent examples.

Charting - Charting is a good strategy for courses that require


comparisons/contrasts of specific dates, places, people, events,
importance and how the information relates.
After Class

Immediately after class, remain in the classroom or find a quiet


space close by and review notes.

To solidify your understanding and connect new concepts with


previous concepts, review your notes as soon as possible
following class.

Connect with another member of the class and create an


interactive discussion about the lecture.
 Visit your professor during office hours with questions. Be specific, state what
you understand and ask if you missed any important concepts.

Instead of recopying your notes, record yourself reviewing what you wrote (if
possible).

Additionally, you will have a recording that can be played back.


10.3. Test-Taking Skill and preparation for exam

There are some suggestions that can help students in doing


tests. Some of these suggestions are given below.
1. Attend all classes
2. Take organized and clear lecture notes
3. Plan your study time and set study goals
4.Use SQ3R(Survey, Question, Read, Revise and Recite) study
style
5.Use memorizing techniques such as associating difficult
material with something you already know
6.Divide the review material into logical sections and concentrate
on one at a time.
7. Organize the information you must remember
8. Know your teacher(e.g., His/her focus areas) and ask him
points which is not clear for you.
9. Make your presence known in class by your courtesy,
cooperation and willingness to learn
10. Ask questions to increase your understanding of course
material
11. Make use of tutoring services and student support centers of
the college
12. Separate review time from daily assignments
13. Start reviewing systematically and early, not just the night
before the test
14. Practice predicting and answering test questions.
15. Learn test-taking terms and strategies.
16. Examine previous tests to ascertain what you did well and
what you did not do so well.
17. Find out what kind of a test it will be: objective, essay, or
a combination of both.

18. Find out when and where the test will be given;

19. Get plenty of sleep the night before the exam.

20. Get up early enough to avoid rushing and to eat a healthy


breakfast.

21. Tell yourself you will do well - and you will!


10.4. Test Anxiety and Overcoming Test Anxiety

Almost everyone feels nervous or experiences some anxiety


when faced with a test or an exam.

Test anxiety is a negative mood state characterized by bodily


symptoms of physical tension and by apprehension about a
test/exam going to take place in the future.

It can be a subjective sense of unease, a set of behaviors


(looking worried and anxious or fidgeting), or a physiological
response originating in the brain and reflected in elevated
heart rate and muscle tension due to negative thinking of taking
a test.
Students with test anxiety will experience rushes of adrenaline
before and throughout their test.
Adrenaline blocks the brain from thinking and triggers
flight/fight responses.
It can interfere with students‘ studying, and they may have
difficulty in learning and remembering what they need to know
for the test.
Further, too much anxiety may block performances. Students
may have difficulty in demonstrating what they know during
the test.
Hence, the student will not be in a good state of feelings while
doing the test and become a failure.
Symptoms of test anxiety

Physical - headaches, nausea or diarrhea, extreme body


temperature changes, excessive sweating, shortness of
breath, light-headedness or fainting, rapid heartbeat,
and/or dry mouth.

Emotional - excessive feelings of fear, disappointment,


anger, depression, uncontrollable crying or laughing,
feelings of helplessness
Behavioral -fidgeting, pacing, substance abuse, avoidance
Cognitive - racing thoughts, going blank, difficulty in concentrating,
negative self-talk, feelings of fear, comparing self with others, and
difficulty in organizing thoughts
Students should exercise realistic thinking.

Realistic thinking means looking at all aspects of a situation


(the positive, the negative and the neutral) before making
conclusions.

Realistic thinking means looking at oneself, others, and the


world in a balanced and fair way.

The following are steps of realistic thinking that can be applied


to reduce test-anxiety.
10.5. Goal Setting

Goal setting is like drawing map, which will help individuals to


track their development towards reaching their full potential.
It is the process of imagining, planning and implementing the
big picture of one‘s destination.
Goal setting gives someone direction and motivation, as well as
increasing satisfaction and self-confidence in their performance.
In the process of goal setting, goals should be straightforward
and emphasize what the individual want to happen in his/her
life.
The goal should be specific, measurable, action, realistic and
time-bound (SMART).
Hellriegel, Slocum, Woodman and Martens (1992; 1987) found
the following to be the most important purposes of goal setting:
Guide and direct behavior
Provide clarity
Provide challenges and standards
Reflect on what the goal setters consider important
 Help to improve performance.
Increase the motivation to achieve
Help increase pride and satisfaction in achievements
Improve self-confidence
Help to decrease negative attitude
10.6. Career Development Skill
Career is how individuals live their lives across different
contexts and settings, including education, work, family and
leisure time.

Vaughan (2011) asserts that all individuals need to carefully


coordinate their life, work and learning choices and
experiences, at all ages and stages throughout their lifetime.

Career development is a lifelong continuous process of


planning implementing and managing one‟s learning, work
and leisure in order to achieve life objectives.
It is a continuous lifelong process of developmental
experiences that focuses on seeking, obtaining and processing
information about self, occupational and educational
alternatives, life styles and role options is career development.

Put in an another way, career development is the process


through which people come to understand themselves as they
relate to the world of work and their role in it.
Career management skill is often used to describe skills aptitudes abilities and
attitudes required to manage life.

In other language career management skills (CMS) are competencies which help
individuals to identify their existing skills develop career learning goals and take
action to enhance their careers.

/////////////End of Chapter Ten////////////

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