Artificial Intelligence (AI)

3170716

Unit-3: Knowledge
Representation

Dr. Gopi Sanghani

Computer Engineering Department
Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
[email protected]
9825621471
 Outline
Looping
 Representations And Mappings
 Approaches To Knowledge Representation
 Representation of Simple Facts In Logic
 Representing Instance And Isa Relationships
 Computable Functions and Predicates
 Resolution
 Procedural versus Declarative Knowledge
 Logic Programming
 Forward versus Backward Reasoning
Representations And Mappings
 In order to solve complex problems encountered in artificial intelligence, one needs both a large
amount of knowledge and some mechanism for manipulating that knowledge to create
solutions.
 Knowledge and Representation are two distinct entities.
 They play central but distinguishable roles in the intelligent system.
 Knowledge is a description of the world. It determines a system’s competence by what it
knows.
 Moreover, Representation is the way knowledge is encoded. It defines a system’s performance
in doing something.
 Different types of knowledge require different kinds of representation.
 The Knowledge Representation models/mechanisms are often based on: Logic, Rules, Frames,
Semantic Net, etc.

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Types of Knowledge
Informal or Implicit Formal or Explicit
• Exists within a human being • Exists outside a human being;

• It is embodied. • It is embedded.

• Difficult to articulate formally. • Can be articulated formally.

• Difficult to communicate or share. • Can be shared, copied, processed and stored.

• Hard to steal or copy. • Easy to steal or copy

• Drawn from experience, action, subjective • Drawn from artifact of some type as principle,
insight procedure, process, concepts.

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Mapping between Facts and Representation
Desired Real
Reasoning
Initial Facts Final Facts

Forward Backward
Representation Representation
Mapping Mapping

Internal Representation of Internal Representation of

Initial Facts Operated by final Facts
Program

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Approaches To Knowledge Representation
 A knowledge representation system should have following properties.
1. Representational Adequacy : The ability to represent all kinds of knowledge that are needed in
that domain.
2. Inferential Adequacy : The ability to manipulate the representational structures to derive new
structures corresponding to new knowledge inferred from old.
3. Inferential Efficiency : The ability to incorporate additional information into the knowledge
structure that can be used to focus the attention of the inference mechanisms in the most
promising direction.
4. Acquisitional Efficiency : The ability to acquire new knowledge using automatic methods
wherever possible rather than reliance on human intervention.

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Knowledge Representation Schemes
 Relational Knowledge : The simplest way to represent declarative facts is as a set of relations
of the same sort used in the database system.

Player Height Weight Bats - Throws

Aaron 6-0 180 Right - Right

Mays 5-10 170 Right - Right

Ruth 6-2 215 Left - Left

Williams 6-3 205 Left - Right

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Knowledge Representation Schemes
 Inheritable Knowledge : Here the knowledge elements inherit attributes from their parents.

Adult-male

Isa

Player

Isa Isa

Cricket Football

Instance Instance

Peter Ankit

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Knowledge Representation Schemes
 Inferential Knowledge : This knowledge generates new information from the given information.
This new information does not require further data gathering form source, but does require
analysis of the given information to generate new knowledge.
 Example:
 given a set of relations and values, one may infer other values or relations.
 A predicate logic (a mathematical deduction) is used to infer from a set of attributes.
 Inference through predicate logic uses a set of logical operations to relate individual data.
 Represent knowledge as formal logic:
All dogs have tails :: ∀x: dog(x) → hastail(x)

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Knowledge Representation Schemes
 Procedural Knowledge : A representation in which the control information, to use the
knowledge, is embedded in the knowledge itself.
 For example, computer programs, directions, and recipes.
 Knowledge is encoded in some procedures, small programs that know how to do specific
things, how to proceed.

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Representation of Simple Facts In Logic
Introduction
 Logic
 The logical formalism of a language is useful because it immediately suggests a powerful way of deriving
new knowledge from old using mathematical deduction.
 In this formalism, we can conclude that a new statement is true by proving that it follows from the
statements that are already known.
 Proposition
 A proposition is a statement, or a simple declarative sentence.
 For example, “the book is expensive” is a proposition.
 A proposition can be either true or false

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Propositional logic
 Logical constants: true, false
 Propositional symbols: P, Q, S,... (atomic sentences)
 Propositions are combined by connectives:

 and [conjunction]
 or [disjunction]
 implies [implication]
 not [negation]
∀ For all
∃ There exists

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Propositional Logic
 Representing simple facts using propositional logic:
1. It is raining
RAINING
2. It is sunny
SUNNY
3. It is windy
WINDY
4. If it is raining, then it is not sunny
RAINING   SUNNY

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Predicate Logic
 First-order Predicate logic (FOPL) is a formal language in which propositions are expressed in
terms of predicates, variables and quantifiers.
 It is different from propositional logic which lacks quantifiers.
 It should be viewed as an extension to propositional logic, in which the notions of truth values,
logical connectives, etc. still apply but propositional letters will be replaced by a newer notion
of proposition involving predicates and quantifiers.
 A predicate is an expression of one or more variables defined on some specific domain.
 A predicate with variables can be made up of a proposition by either assigning a value to the
variable or by quantifying the variable.

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Well Formed Formula
 Well Formed Formula (wff) is a predicate holding any of the following −
 All propositional constants and propositional variables are wffs
 If x is a variable and Y is a wff, ∀Y and ∃x are also wff
 Truth value and false values are wffs
 Each atomic formula is a wff
 All connectives connecting wffs are wffs

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Facts Represented as Well Formed Formula in FOPL
1. Marcus was a man.
man(Marcus)
2. Marcus was a Pompeian.
Pompeian(Marcus)
3. All Pompeians were Romans.
 x: Pompeian(x)  Roman(x)
4. Caesar was a ruler.
ruler(Caesar)
5. All Pompeians were either loyal to Caesar or hated him.
x: Roman(x)  loyalto(x, Caesar)  hate(x, Caesar)

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Representing INSTANCE and ISA Relationships
 Specific attributes instance and isa play
important role particularly in a useful form of
reasoning called property inheritance.
 The predicates instance and isa explicitly
captured the relationships they are used to
express, namely class membership and class
inclusion.
 The predicate instance is a binary one, whose
first argument is an object and whose second
argument is a class to which the object
belongs.
 The use of the isa predicate simplifies the
representation of sentence 3, but it requires
that one additional axiom (shown here as
number 6) be provided.

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Resolution
Introduction
 Resolution is a procedure, which gains its efficiency from the fact that it operates on
statements that have been converted to a very convenient standard form.
 Resolution produces proofs by refutation.
 In other words, to prove a statement (i.e., to show that it is valid), resolution attempts to show
that the negation of the statement produces a contradiction with the known statements (that it
is un-satisfiable).
 The resolution procedure is a simple iterative process: at each step, two clauses, called the
parent clauses, are compared (resolved), resulting into a new clause that has been inferred
from them.
 The new clause represents ways that the two parent clauses interact with each other.

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Facts Represented as Well Formed Formula in FOPL
1. Marcus was a man.
man(Marcus)
2. Marcus was a Pompeian.
Pompeian(Marcus)
3. All Pompeians were Romans.
x: Pompeian(x)  Roman(x)
4. Caesar was a ruler.
ruler(Caesar)
5. All Pompeians were either loyal to Caesar or hated him.
x: Roman(x)  loyalto(x, Caesar)  hate(x, Caesar)

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Facts Represented as Well Formed Formula in FOPL
6. Every one is loyal to someone.
x: y: loyalto(x, y)
7. People only try to assassinate rulers they are not loyal to.
x: y: person(x)  ruler(y)  tryassassinate(x, y)  loyalto(x, y)
8. Marcus tried to assassinate Caesar.
tryassassinate(Marcus, Caesar)

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Axioms in clause form
1. man(Marcus). 1. man(Marcus)
2. Pompeian(Marcus). 2. Pompeian(Marcus)
3. x: Pompeian(x)  Roman(x). 3. ¬Pompeian(x1)  Roman(x1)
4. ruler(Caesar). 4. ruler(Caesar)
5. x: Roman(x)  loyalto(x, Caesar)  5. ¬Roman(x2)  loyalto(x2, Caesar) 
hate(x, Caesar). hate(x2, Caesar)
6. x: y: loyalto(x, y). 6. loyalto(x3,fl(x3))
7. x: y: person(x)  ruler(y)  7. ¬man(x4)  ¬ruler(y1) 
tryassassinate(x, y)  loyalto(x, y). ¬tryassassinate(x4,y1)  ¬ loyalto(x4,y1)
8. tryassassinate(Marcus, Caesar). 8. trayassassinate(Marcus,Caesar)

a → b is equivalent to ¬ a  b Prove: hate(Marcus, Caesar)

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 ¬hate (Marcus, Caesar) 5 (Marcus l x2)
Prove: hate(Marcus, Caesar)

Sunny  Rain Windy  ¬ Rain 3 (Marcus l x1) ¬Roman(Marcus)  loyalto(Marcus, Caesar)

Resolution by Refutation

Sunny  Windy 2
¬Pompeian(Marcus)  loyalto(Marcus, Caesar)

7 (Marcus l x4, Caesar l y1) loyalto(Marcus, Caesar)

¬man(Marcus)  ¬ruler(Caesar)  ¬tryassassinate(Marcus, Caesar) 1

Final resolvent is an empty clause 4 ¬ruler(Caesar)  ¬tryassassinate(Marcus, Caesar)

means that a contradiction is found
in the initial assumption. So it is
¬tryassassinate(Marcus, Caesar) 8
proved that
hate (Marcus, Caesar).
Resolution by Refutation – Example
1. John likes all kinds of food.
2. Apples are food.
3. Chicken is food.
4. Anything anyone eats and isn’t killed by is food.
5. Bill eats peanuts and is still alive.
6. John eats everything Bill eats.

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Resolution by Refutation – Example
Step 1 : Translate these sentences into formulas in FOPL
1. John likes all kinds of food.
∀x Food(x) → Likes(John, x)
2. Apples are food.
Food(Apples)
3. Chicken is food.
Food(Chicken)
4. Anything anyone eats and isn’t killed by is food.
∀x ∃y : Eats(y, x) ∧ ¬KilledBy(y, x) → Food(x)
5. Bill eats peanuts and is still alive.
Eats(Bill, Peanuts) ∧ ¬KilledBy(Bill, Peanuts)
6. John eats everything Bill eats.
∀x : Eats(Bill, x) → Eats(John, x)

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Axioms in clause form
Step 2 : Convert the formulas of step 1 into clause form.
1. ∀x Food(x) → Likes(John, x) 1. ¬Food(x) ∨ Likes(John, x)
2. Food(Apples) 2. Food(Apples)
3. Food(Chicken) 3. Food(Chicken)
4. ∀x ∃y : Eats(y, x) ∧ ¬KilledBy(y, x) → 4. ¬Eats(y, x) ∨ KilledBy(y, x) ∨ Food(x)
Food(x) 5. Eats(Bill, Peanuts)
6. Eats(Bill, Peanuts) ∧ ¬KilledBy(Bill, 6. ¬KilledBy(Bill, Peanuts)
Peanuts)
7. ¬Eats(Bill, x) ∨ Eats(John, x)
7. ∀x : Eats(Bill, x) → Eats(John, x)

Use resolution to prove that John likes peanuts.

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 Prove: Likes(John, Peanuts)

¬Likes(John, Peanuts) 1 (Peanuts l x)

Resolution by Refutation

4 (Peanuts l x) ¬Food(Peanuts)

¬Eats(y, Peanuts) ∨ KilledBy(y, Peanuts) (Bill l y) 5

6 KilledBy(Bill, Peanuts)

Final resolvent is an empty clause

means that a contradiction is found
in the initial assumption. So it is
proved that
Likes(John, Peanuts)
Representing Knowledge Using Rules
Procedural and Declarative Knowledge
 Procedural Knowledge :
 Procedural Knowledge is the type of knowledge which clarifies how a particular thing can be accomplished.
 It emphasize how to do something to solve a given problem.
 A representation in which the control information that is necessary to use the knowledge is embedded in the
knowledge itself for e.g. computer programs, directions, and recipes; these indicate specific use or
implementation;
 Declarative Knowledge :
 Declarative Knowledge is the type of knowledge which tells the basic knowledge about something and it is
more popular than Procedural Knowledge.
 It emphasize what to do something to solve a given problem.
 A statement in which knowledge is specified, but the use to which that knowledge is to be put is not given.
For example, laws, these are the facts which can stand alone, not dependent on other knowledge.

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Differences Between Declarative knowledge and Procedural Knowledge
Procedural knowledge Declarative knowledge
• It is also known as Interpretive knowledge. • It is also known as Descriptive knowledge.

• Procedural Knowledge means how a • While Declarative Knowledge means basic

particular thing can be accomplished. knowledge about something.

• High efficiency and Low modifiability • Good modifiability and good readability

• Low perceptive adequacy (better for • Suitable for independent facts

knowledge engineers)
• Good cognitive matching (better for domain
• Produces creative, reflective thought and experts and end-users) and low computational
promoters critical thinking and independent efficiency.
decision making

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Forward versus Backward Reasoning
 A search procedure must find a path between initial and goal states. There are two directions in
which a search process could proceed.

Forward Reasoning Backward Reasoning

Reason forward from the initial state Reasoning backward from the goal states
1. It begins building a tree of moves by starting with 1. It begins building a tree of moves by starting with the
the initial configuration at the root of the tree. goal node configuration at the root of the tree.

2. Generates the next level of tree by finding all 2. Generate the next level of tree by finding all rules
rules whose left hand side matches against the whose right hand side matches against the root node.
root node. The right hand side is used to create The left hand side is used to create new
new configurations. configurations.

3. Forward Chaining searches for any conclusion. 3. Backward chaining searches for only the required
Suitable for planning, monitoring, control, and data. Suitable for diagnostic and debugging
interpretation applications. applications.

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Thank You!