Textbooks:

1. “Electronic Devices”, 9th Edition, By Thomas L Floyd

References Material:

1. Electronic Principles 7th Edition by Albert Malvino & David J Bates

2. “Microelectronic Circuits”, 5th Edition, By Sedra Smith

3. “Electronics: A Systems Approach”, 5th Edition, By Neil Storey

 
Analog Electronics
+V

–V
Block Diagram of an Op-Amp
Operational Amplifiers

Op-amp is an electronic device that amplify the difference of

voltage at its two inputs.

Most op-amps operate from plus +V

and minus supply voltages, which –

may or may not be shown on the

+
schematic symbol.
–V

Very high gain dc coupled amplifiers with differential inputs.

One of the inputs is called the inverting input (-); the other is called the
non-inverting input. Usually there is a single output.
 The Ideal Op-Amp

Ideally, op-amps have characteristics (used in circuit analysis):

o Infinite voltage gain
o Infinite input impedance (does not load the driving sources)
o Zero output impedance (drive any load)
o Infinite bandwidth (flat magnitude response, zero phase shift)
o Zero input offset voltage.

The ideal op-amp has characteristics that

simplify analysis of op-amp circuits. –

Vin Zin = ‘ AvVin Vout

The concept of infinite input impedance is Av = ‘
Zout = 0

particularly a valuable analysis tool for +

several op-amp configurations.
 The Practical Op-Amp

Real op-amps differ from the ideal model in various respects. In addition to finite
gain, bandwidth, and input impedance, they have other limitations.

o Finite open loop gain.

o Finite input impedence. –
o Non-zero output impedence.
o Input current. Vin Zin AvVin
Zout
Vout

o Input offset voltage.

+
oTemperature effects.
 Input Signal modes

The input signal can be applied to an op-amp in differential-mode or in

common-mode.

Vin

Vout
+

Differential-mode signals are

applied either as single-ended
(one side on ground) or
double-ended (opposite
–
phases on the inputs). Vin Vout
+
Signal modes

Common-mode signals are

applied to both sides with the Vin
same phase on both.
–
Vout
+
Usually, common-mode
Vin
signals are from unwanted –
sources, and affect both Vout
inputs in the same way. The +
result is that they are Vin
essentially cancelled at the Common-mode
output. signals
Differential Amplifier
Modes of operation of
Differential Amplifier
Single-Ended and Differential Operation
• A “single-ended” signal is one that is measured with respect to a fixed
potential, usually the ground [Fig. (a)]

• A differential signal is one that is measured between two nodes that have
equal and opposite signal excursions around a fixed potential [Fig. (b)]
• There are two modes of operations of DA
– Differential mode
–Common mode

• Differential mode:
• Two input signals are of same magnitude but
opposite polarity are used (180 out of phase)

• Common mode
• Two input signals are of equal in magnitude
and same phase are used
Differential mode
• Assume sine wave on base of Q1 is +ve going signal while
on the base of Q2 –ve going signal
• An amplified –ve going signal will appear at collector
of Q1
• An amplified +ve going signal will appear at collector
of Q2
• Due to +ve going signal of base of Q1, current
increases in RE & hence a +ve going wave is developed
across RE
• Due to -ve going signal of base of Q2, -ve going wave
is developed across RE because of emitter follower
action of Q2
• So, signal voltages across RE, due to effect of
Q1 &Q2 are equal in magnitude &1800 out of
phasedue to matched transistors

• Hence the two signals cancel each other &

there is no signal across RE

• No AC signal flows thro it

• Vo= +10-(-10)= 20

• Vo is difference voltage in two signals

Common Mode Operation
• Two input signals are of equal in magnitude and
same phase are used
• In phase signal develops in phase signal
voltages across RE
 The four differential amplifier configurations are following:
Dual input, unbalanced
•Dual input, balanced
output
output

Single input balanced Single input unbalanced

output output
Applying KVL to the base emitter loop
of the transistor Q1.
 Knowing the value of IC the voltage at the collector VC is given by:

           VC =VCC – IC RC

and VCE = VC – VE

                = VCC – IC RC + VBE

       VCE = VCC + VBE – ICRC

From the two equations VCEQ and ICQ can be determined. This dc analysis applicable
for all types of differential amplifier.
Drive the equation for Start with simplest configuration
Voltage gain ?
 Substituting current relations,
Applying KVL in two loops 1 &
2.

Again, assuming RS1/ β and RS2 / β   are very small in comparison with
RE and re' and therefore neglecting these terms,
Solving these two equations, ie1 and ie2 can be
calculated.

The output voltage VO is given by

VO = VC2 - VC1
      = -RC iC2 - (-RC iC1)
      = RC (iC1 - iC2)
      = RC (ie1 - ie2)

Substituting ie1, & ie2 in the above expression

Defining the difference of
input signals as vd = v1 – v2 
Differential Input Resistance:
Differential input resistance is defined as the equivalent resistance that would be measured at
either input terminal with the other terminal grounded. This means that the input resistance
Ri1 seen from the input signal source v1 is determined with the signal source v2 set at zero.

Similarly, the input signal v 1 is set at zero to determine the input resistance R i2 seen from
the input signal source v2. Resistance RS1 and RS2 are ignored because they are very
small.
Similarly

Substituting ie1,

The factor of 2 arises because the re' of each

transistor is in series.
Output Resistance:
Output resistance is defined as the equivalent resistance that would be
measured at output terminal with respect to ground. Therefore, the output
resistance RO1 measured between collector C1 and ground is equal to that of
the collector resistance RC. Similarly the output resistance RO2 measured at
C2 with respect to ground is equal to that of the collector resistor R C.

RO1 = RO2 = RC        (E-5)

 (b) Bias voltage on input 1 with input 2
(a) Both inputs grounded
grounded

(c) Bias voltage on input 2 with input

1 grounded
 Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

The ability of an amplifier to amplify differential signals and reject common-

mode signals is called the common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR).

Aol where Aol is the open-loop

CMRR is defined as CMRR 
Acm differential-gain and Acm is the
common-mode gain.
Acm is zero in ideal op-amp and much less than 1 is
practical op-amps.
Aol ranges up to 200,000 (106dB)

CMRR = 100,000 means that desired signal is amplified 100,000 times

more than un wanted noise signal.
 Aol 
CMRR can also be expressed in decibels as CMRR  20 log  
A
 cm 
 Example

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

What is CMRR in decibels for a typical 741C op-amp?

The typical open-loop differential gain for the 741C is 200,000 and the
typical common-mode gain is 6.3.

 Aol 
CMRR  20 log  
A
 cm 
200, 000
 20 log  90 dB
6.3
(The minimum specified CMRR is 70 dB.)
 Method of improving CMRR
Effect of RE:
• To improve CMRR, ‘Avc’ must be reduced

• “Avc” approaches zero as RE tends to infinite

• Because RE introduces –ve feedback which

reduces ‘Avc’

• Higher value of RE, lesser the Ac, higher the

value of CMRR

• ‘Ad’ is independent of RE
• But practically RE cannot be selected very
high
due to some limitations
–Large RE needs higher biasing voltage to set
Q-pt
( Under Dc cond Ic=βIB but IE=IC IB=IE/ β
–IE depends on β
–To make Q-pt stable IE should be constant
irrespective of β
–For constant IE emitter R should be very
large this increases CMRR, )
–Increases overall chip area
• So various methods are used which
provide increased effect of RE without
any limitations
1. Constant current bias method
2. Use of current mirror method
• Another method to improve “Ad” to
increase CMRR is Active load