DATA AND SIGNALS

To be transmitted, data must be

transformed to electromagnetic signals.
 ANALOG AND DIGITAL
Data can be analog or digital. The term analog data refers to
information that is continuous; digital data refers to
information that has discrete states. Analog data take on
continuous values. Digital data take on discrete values.

Topics discussed in this section:

Analog and Digital Data
Analog and Digital Signals
Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals
Note

Data can be analog or digital.

Analog data are continuous and take
continuous values.
Digital data have discrete states and
take discrete values.
Note

Signals can be analog or digital.

Analog signals can have an infinite
number of values in a range; digital
signals can have only a limited
number of values.
Comparison of analog and digital signals
Periodic and Non Periodic

 A periodic signal completes a pattern within a

measurable time frame, called a period, and repeats that
pattern over subsequent identical periods.

 The completion of one full pattern is called as a cycle.

 A non-periodic signal changes without exhibiting a

pattern or a cycle.
Note

In data communications, we commonly

use periodic analog signals and
nonperiodic digital signals.
IODIC ANALOG SIGNALS

Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or

composite.
Figure A sine wave
A sine wave is represented by:

 Peak Amplitude

 Frequency

 Phase

 Wavelength
 Peak Amplitude
 The peak amplitude of a signal is the
absolute value of its highest intensity,
proportional to energy it carries.

 Measured in volts.
Two signals with the same phase and frequency,
but different amplitudes
 Example

The voltage of a battery is a constant; this constant value

can be considered a sine wave, as we will see later. For
example, the peak value of an AA battery is normally
1.5 V.
 Period and Frequency
 Period refers to amount of time, in seconds, a
signal takes to complete one cycle.

 Frequency refers to the number of periods in 1

second.

 Period is expressed in seconds and frequency

is expressed in hertz (Hz)
Note

Frequency and period are the inverse of

each other.
Note

Frequency is the rate of change with

respect to time.

Change in a short span of time

means high frequency.

Change over a long span of

time means low frequency.
Note

If a signal does not change at all, its

frequency is zero.
If a signal changes instantaneously, its
frequency is infinite.
Table Units of period and frequency
Figure Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,
but different frequencies
 Example

The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz.

Determined the period of this sine wave?
 Example

Express a period of 100 ms in microseconds.

 Example

The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in

kilohertz?

Solution
Note

Phase describes the position of the

waveform relative to time 0.
Figure Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,
but different phases
 Example

A sine wave with value 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0.

What is its phase in degrees and radians?
Figure Wavelength and period
 Wavelength

 Wavelength is the distance a signal can

travel in one period.
 Wavelength= propagation speed* period
Or
 Wavelength= propagation speed/ frequency
Figure The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave
Note

A complete sine wave in the time

domain can be represented by one
single spike in the frequency domain.
 Example

The frequency domain is more compact and

useful when we are dealing with more than one
sine wave. For example, Figure 3.8 shows three
sine waves, each with different amplitude and
frequency. All can be represented by three
spikes in the frequency domain.
Figure The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves
Note

A single-frequency sine wave is not

useful in data communications;
we need to send a composite signal, a
signal made of many simple sine waves.
Note

According to Fourier analysis, any

composite signal is a combination of
simple sine waves with different
frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.
Note

If the composite signal is periodic, the

decomposition gives a series of signals
with discrete frequencies;
if the composite signal is nonperiodic,
the decomposition gives a combination
of sine waves with continuous
frequencies.
 Example

Figure 3.9 shows a periodic composite signal with

frequency f. This type of signal is not typical of those
found in data communications. We can consider it to be
three alarm systems, each with a different frequency.
The analysis of this signal can give us a good
understanding of how to decompose signals.
Figure A composite periodic signal
Figure Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and
frequency domains
 Example

Figure 3.11 shows a nonperiodic composite signal. It

can be the signal created by a microphone or a telephone
set when a word or two is pronounced. In this case, the
composite signal cannot be periodic, because that
implies that we are repeating the same word or words
with exactly the same tone.
Figure The time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal
Note

The bandwidth of a composite signal is

the difference between the
highest and the lowest frequencies
contained in that signal.
Figure The bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals
 Example

If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves

with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what
is its bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all
components have a maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then

The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700,
and 900 Hz (see Figure 3.13).
Figure The bandwidth for Example 3.10
 Example

A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest

frequency is 60 Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw
the spectrum if the signal contains all frequencies of the
same amplitude.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then

The spectrum contains all integer frequencies. We show

this by a series of spikes (see Figure 3.14).
Figure The bandwidth for Example 3.11
 Example

A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200

kHz, with a middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak
amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies have an
amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency domain of the
signal.

Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest
at 240 kHz. Figure 3.15 shows the frequency domain
and the bandwidth.
Figure The bandwidth for Example 3.12
 3-3 DIGITAL SIGNALS
In addition to being represented by an analog signal,
information can also be represented by a digital signal.
For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage
and a 0 as zero voltage. A digital signal can have more
than two levels. In this case, we can send more than 1 bit
for each level.
Figure Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other
with four signal levels
 Example

A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are

needed per level? We calculate the number of bits from
the formula

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.

 Example

A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are

needed per level? We calculate the number of bits by
using the formula. Each signal level is represented by
3.17 bits. However, this answer is not realistic. The
number of bits sent per level needs to be an integer as
well as a power of 2. For this example, 4 bits can
represent one level.
Bit Rate

 Most Digital Signals are non-periodic. Therefore,

period and frequency are not appropriate
characteristics.
 Bit rate is used.
 Bit rate is number of bits sent in 1s. Expressed in
bps.
 Example

Assume we need to download text documents at the rate

of 100 pages per minute. What is the required bit rate of
the channel?
Solution
A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in
each line. If we assume that one character requires 8
bits, the bit rate is
Bit Length

 Bit length is distance one bit occupies on

transmission medium.

 Bit length= propagation speed* bit duration

Figure Baseband transmission
Note

A digital signal is a composite analog

signal with an infinite bandwidth.
Figure Bandwidths of two low-pass channels
Figure Baseband transmission using a dedicated medium
Note

Baseband transmission of a digital

signal that preserves the shape of the
digital signal is possible only if we have
a low-pass channel with an infinite or
very wide bandwidth.
Note

In baseband transmission, the required

In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is proportional to

bandwidth is proportional the bit rate; to the bit rate;

if we
if weneed to send
need to send bits
bits faster, faster,
we need we need
more bandwidth.

more bandwidth. Bit rate is twice the

bandwidth required.
Broadband Transmission: Bandwidth of a bandpass channel
Note

If the available channel is a bandpass

channel, we cannot send the digital
signal directly to the channel;
we need to convert the digital signal to
an analog signal before transmission.
Figure Modulation of a digital signal for transmission on a bandpass
channel
 Example

An example of broadband transmission using

modulation is the sending of computer data through a
telephone subscriber line, the line connecting a resident
to the central telephone office. These lines are designed
to carry voice with a limited bandwidth. The channel is
considered a bandpass channel. We convert the digital
signal from the computer to an analog signal, and send
the analog signal. We can install two converters to
change the digital signal to analog and vice versa at the
receiving end. The converter, in this case, is called a
modem
ATA RATE LIMITS

A very important consideration in data communications

is how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a
channel. Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

Topics discussed in this section:

Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
Using Both Limits
Note

Increasing the levels of a signal may

reduce the reliability of the system.
Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate

Bit Rate= 2 * bandwidth * log2 L

 Example

Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000

Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The
maximum bit rate can be calculated as
 Example

Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a

signal with four signal levels (for each level, we send 2
bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as
 Example

We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with

a bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we
need?
Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either

increase the number of levels or reduce the bit rate. If we
have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64
levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps.
Noisy Channel : Shannon Capacity

 Capacity= Bandwidth * log2( 1+SNR)

 Example

Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value

of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other
words, the noise is so strong that the signal is faint. For
this channel the capacity C is calculated as

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero

regardless of the bandwidth. In other words, we cannot
receive any data through this channel.
 Example

We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a

regular telephone line. A telephone line normally has a
bandwidth of 3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually
3162. For this channel the capacity is calculated as

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line
is 34.860 kbps. If we want to send data faster than this,
we can either increase the bandwidth of the line or
improve the signal-to-noise ratio.
 Example

The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels.

Assume that SNRdB = 36 and the channel bandwidth is 2
MHz. The theoretical channel capacity can be calculated
as
 Example

For practical purposes, when the SNR is very high, we

can assume that SNR + 1 is almost the same as SNR. In
these cases, the theoretical channel capacity can be
simplified to

For example, we can calculate the theoretical capacity of

the previous example as
 Example

We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR

for this channel is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate
and signal level?

Solution
First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper
limit.
 Example

The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit.

For better performance we choose something lower, 4
Mbps, for example. Then we use the Nyquist formula to
find the number of signal levels.
Note

The Shannon capacity gives us the

upper limit; the Nyquist formula tells us
how many signal levels we need.
3-6 PERFORMANCE

One important issue in networking is the performance of

the network—how good is it?.

Topics discussed in this section:

Bandwidth
Throughput
Latency (Delay)
Bandwidth-Delay Product
Note
In networking, we use the term
bandwidth in two contexts.
❏ The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to
the range of frequencies in a
composite signal or the range of
frequencies that a channel can pass.

❏ The second, bandwidth in bits per

second, refers to the speed of bit
transmission in a channel or link.
 Example

If the telephone company improves the quality of the line

and increases the bandwidth to 8 kHz, we can send
112,000 bps by using the same technology
 Example

A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an

average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame
carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the
throughput of this network?

Solution
We can calculate the throughput as

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in

this case.
 Latency (Delay)
Latency= Propagation Time+ transmission time +
queuing time+ processing delay

Propagation time measures the time required for a bit to travel from the source to the
destination. The propagation time is calculated by dividing the distance by the
propagation speed.
Propagation time = Distance / (Propagation Speed)
The transmission time of a message depends on the size of the message and the
bandwidth of the channel.
Transmission time 5 (Message size) / Bandwidth
The third component in latency is the queuing time, the time needed for each
intermediate or end device to hold the message before it can be processed. When
there is heavy traffic on the network, the queuing time increases. An intermediate
device, such as a router, queues the arrived messages and processes them one by
one. If there are many messages, each message will have to wait.
 Example

What is the propagation time if the distance between the

two points is 12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed
to be 2.4 × 108 m/s in cable.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as

The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic

Ocean in only 50 ms if there is a direct cable between the
source and the destination.
 Example

What are the propagation time and the transmission

time for a 2.5-kbyte message (an e-mail) if the
bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the
distance between the sender and the receiver is 12,000
km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission time
as shown on the next slide:
 Example

Note that in this case, because the message is short and

the bandwidth is high, the dominant factor is the
propagation time, not the transmission time. The
transmission time can be ignored.
 Example

What are the propagation time and the transmission

time for a 5-Mbyte message (an image) if the bandwidth
of the network is 1 Mbps? Assume that the distance
between the sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and
that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission
times as shown on the next slide.
 Example

Note that in this case, because the message is very long

and the bandwidth is not very high, the dominant factor
is the transmission time, not the propagation time. The
propagation time can be ignored.