Radar Principles

Enabling Objectives

• IDENTIFY the following radio wave characteristics:

 Wave
 Cycle
 Frequency
 Radio Frequency Waves
 Wave Period
 Wavelength

• IDENTIFY the function of the following components of the basic

radar system:
 Modulator
 Transmitter
 Antenna System
 Receiver
 Indicator
 Power Supply
 Enabling Objectives

• IDENTIFY radar system constants

 Carrier Frequency
 Pulse Width
 Pulse Repetition Rate (PRR)
 Rest Time
 Power
 Beam Width

• DEFINE factors affected by system constants

 Maximum theoretical range
 Minimum theoretical range
 Physical size
 Range resolution
 Beaming resolution
 Elevation resolution
 Enabling Objectives

• IDENTIFY the effects of the following on the

detection capability of radar:
 Refraction
 Reflection
 Diffraction
 Attenuation
 Trapping
 Ship distance
 Fade zone
 Skip zone
 Enabling Objectives

• DEFINE the following as they apply to radar propagation:

 Sea return
 Weather
 Antenna height
 Antenna rotation rate
 Doppler
 Moving Target Indicator (MTI)
 Lobing
 Fade areas
 Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
 Radar clutter
 Radar cross section
 Target composition
 Terrain
 Enabling Objectives

• IDENTIFY the following types of radar.

 Air search
 Surface search
 Height finding
 Fire control
 Airborne Early Warning Radar (AEW)
 Basic Radar System Components

• Modulator
 Produces a trigger signal that turns the transmitter on for a
short period of time at a specified number of pulses per
second.
 Width of the pulse is measured in μsec and is referred to as
Pulse Width (PW)
 Number of pulses per second is referred to as the Pulse
Repetition Rate (PRR)
 Basic Radar System Components

• Transmitter
 Generates a short powerful burst of radio frequency
energy called a pulse
 Transmitter peak power varies from 10 kW to >2 MW
 Transmission of RF energy in pulses or bursts is referred
to as Pulse Modulation (PM)
 Pulse width (determined by the modulator) varies from 0.1
µsec to over 200 µsec
 Basic Radar System Components

• Antenna System
 Directional antenna forms RF energy into a beam pattern
rather than allowing it to be dispersed in all directions.
 One antenna used for both transmitting and receiving RF
energy.
 Employs a duplexer "gate"
 Basic Radar System Components

• Receiver
 Accepts the reflected RF energy and amplifies it and
shapes it into a video pulse to be displayed on the radar
indicator
 RF energy losses over distances are extremely severe
 Basic Radar System Components

• Radar Indicators
 Provides a scale visual display of the returned echoes
 Timing pulses for the display are taken from the
modulator. This synchronizes the display with the
transmitter, and allows the measurement of ranges to the
contacts displayed on the scope
 Basic Radar System Components

• Power Supply
 Provides the necessary direct currents and alternating
currents to all components of the radar system
 Proper voltages are critical for the proper operation of the
radar system
 Derives its power from the ship's service turbogenerators,
usually via a motor-generator set
 Radar System Constants

• The tactical use, accuracy requirements, range

requirements, and physical size limitations will
determine the characteristics used by any radar
system.

• In most cases, the characteristics of a radar are

fixed, or can only be varied over a small operating
range.
 Radar System Constants

• Carrier Frequency
 The frequency at which the transmitter operates
 Measured in Megahertz (MHz)
 Selection of carrier frequency for a given radar set
depends on desired range and directivity required of the
radar
 Lower frequencies provide greater range capabilities
 The antenna can more easily direct higher frequencies
 Radar System Constants

• Pulse Width
 The actual time (in usec) that the transmitter is on.
 Determines the range resolution and minimum range of the
radar system.
 Range resolution - the ability of a radar system to distinguish
between two contacts on the same bearing but at slightly
different ranges.
 Long pulse widths enhance the radar's capability to detect
contacts at great ranges because more energy is transmitted
with each pulse.
 Radar System Constants

• Pulse Repetition Rate

 The number of transmitted pulses per second.
 Determines the "maximum theoretical range" of the radar
system.
 Maximum Range = 82,000/PRR
 The PRR is referred to as Pulse Repetition Time
 The time in usec between the start of one transmitted pulse
and the start of the next pulse is PRT
 PRT = 1/PRR
 Radar System Constants

• Rest Time
 The time between pulses when the receiver is listening for
returning echoes.
 Radar System Constants

• Peak Power
 The useful power from the transmitter that is contained in
the pulse
 High peak powers enhance the radar's capability to detect
contacts at great ranges.

• Average Power
 The power dissipated during one Pulse Repetition Time
 Average power determines the physical size of the radar
system components.
 Radar System Constants

• Beam Width
 Describes the area where the RF energy is concentrated.
 Determined by the antenna design
 Narrow beam width is easier to obtain with high frequencies
 Horizontal beam width
 Determines bearing resolution of the radar system
Detection Capabilities
 Detection Capabilities of Radar

• Refraction
 Bending of waves caused by medium density changes
through which they are passing.
 Affects lower frequencies
 Allows greater detection ranges by allowing a greater
radar horizon
 Primary reason why long range radars are in low
frequency ranges
 Refraction

Due to change in density

Low density
--------------
Normal density

Normal Visual Distance

1.25 x Visual
 Detection Capabilities of Radar

• Refraction
 Types of refraction
 Normal refraction: Radar horizon is approximately 1.25 times
the Visual horizon.
 Super-Refraction: The effect is to increase the downward
bending of the radar waves, thus increasing range of
detection.
 Sub-Refraction: The effect is to bend the radar waves
upward, thus decreasing range of detection.
 Detection Capabilities of Radar

• Reflection
 Some of the radiated energy will hit the water and be
reflected.
 Most instances, energy leaving the antenna follows two
paths:
 One path is direct to target
 The other from antenna to the surface of the sea, then to the
target.
 The unit of energy at any one point in space is the algebraic
sum of the energy in each path of travel.
 Reflection

Sum of two paths

Due to change in medium

 Detection Capabilities of Radar

• Diffraction
 Curving of waves around edges of an object, allowing
penetration of shadow region behind the object
 Permits detection of a ship on the opposite side of an
island
Diffraction

Island
 Detection Capabilities of Radar

• Attenuation
 Loss, through scattering and absorption, of radio
frequency energy
 Gasses and water vapors in the atmosphere absorb radio
wave energy
 Higher frequencies experience greater absorption
 Attenuation

Losses through scattering

Losses through absorption

Losses through scattering

 Detection Capabilities of Radar

• Trapping (Ducting)
 Result of a temperature inversion, moisture lapse or a
combination of both
 Can greatly affect radar ranges, either positively or
negatively
 A temperature inversion is caused when temperature first
decreases with height, then begins to increase
 A moisture lapse is the result of a rapid decrease of moisture
content with height above a body of water
 Detection Capabilities of Radar

• Skip Distance
 The distance from the transmitter to the farthest point at
which reflected waves return to earth
 Depends on frequency and degree of ionization present
 Detection Capabilities of Radar

• Skip Zone
 The area in which the radar does not detect targets
because they are out of normal range, but are still within
the distance of targets detected by the use of ducting.
Trapping (Ducting)

Due to temperature inversion

or
moisture lapse

Skip Zone

Skip Distance
100s to 1000s of miles
 Radar Propagation Terms

• Sea return
 Radiated energy reflected off the surface of the sea near
the ship.
 This energy is reflected at various angles, some of it
returning to the antenna producing video targets through
the receiver
 Most radars are equipped with special circuits to minimize
the effects of sea return
 Radar Propagation Terms

• Weather
 Precipitation produces moisture in the air which is
detectable due to the reflecting ability of water.
 Produces hazy video presentations which, in most cases,
still allows the detection of well-defined targets such as
ships, land masses, and aircraft, within them
 Radar Propagation Terms

• Antenna Height
 Radar horizon varies with antenna height
 Radar energy is transmitted in a line of sight
 Higher antenna location provides greater detection ranges
 Radar Propagation Terms

• Antenna Rotation Rate

 More slowly antenna rotates, the greater the detection
ranges
 Radar Propagation Terms

• Doppler
 When a pulse is returned (reflected) back to radar the
change in frequency or Doppler effect will determine if
target is moving
 High doppler (frequency shift) target is inbound
 Low doppler (frequency shift) target is outbound
 Radar Propagation Terms

• Moving Target Indicator

 Some radars have this installed, which eliminates those
targets that have no Doppler (are not moving).
 Radar Propagation Terms

• Lobing
 RF energy is radiated in various patterns (lobes)
depending on the shape and design of the antenna. A lobe
is a directional beam within which target detection can be
achieved.
 Main lobe patterns for common antennas
 In addition to main lobe, side lobes (which are smaller) are
produced
 Lobing

Side Lobes

Main Lobe
 Radar Propagation Terms

• Fade Areas
 Energy reflected off ocean surface is reflected up and
cancels certain areas of main lobe
 Contacts cannot be detected in these areas
 Fade areas are predictable and diagrammed for your ship's
radar. Altitude can be estimated by comparing contact
video with fade chart.
 Radar Propagation Terms

• Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)

 Caused by another radar transmitter operating on or near
the same frequency of your radar
 Appear as lines that move rapidly across the radar scope;
referred to as "running rabbits”
 Effect can be reduced or eliminated by changing PRR
 Radar Propagation Terms

• Radar Clutter
 Close range false echoes that seem unaccountable
 Caused by white caps (beyond sea return in the direction
from which is coming), birds, or floating objects such as
large metal cans, powder cans, and seaweed
 Radar Propagation Terms

• Radar Cross-Section
 The ability of a radar system to detect a contact also
depends on its size and makeup
 Formations containing several ships are picked up at
greater distances than single ships because of the larger
reflection area provided by groups of ships
 Radar Propagation Terms

• Target Composition
 May affect scope presentations

 Any variations in normal contact presentation such as

erratic fluctuations in brightness, abnormal size or shape
usually give the operator the indication that there is more
than one target.
 Radar Propagation Terms

• Terrain
 Land normally appears as a bright presentation on the
radar scope; however, different terrain types will show up
differently
 Sandbars and clear, smooth beaches provide the poorest
presentation
 Islands can cause "shadow areas"
 Aircraft flying over land are sometimes masked by land
reflections.
 Types of Radar

• Air Search Radar

 A low frequency low pulse repetition rate, wide pulse width
radar, which uses a bedspring antenna
 It is designed primarily to search large areas at great
distances, for aircraft thus, it provides early warning
 Types of Radar

• Surface Search Radar

 A high frequency, high pulse repetition rate, narrow pulse
width radar, which uses a truncated parabolic antenna
 It is designed primarily to search for and detect surface
objects, low-flying aircraft and missiles
 It is secondarily used for station keeping, coaching fire
control radar onto a target, radar navigation and control of
small craft
 Types of Radar

• Altitude Determining Radar (Height-Finding Radar)

 A medium frequency, medium pulse repetition rate,
medium pulse radar which uses an antenna that scans
vertically while it rotates around (three-coordinate or
height finding antenna)
 It is designed primarily to determine the altitude of an
aircraft that has been detected
 Types of Radar

• Fire Control Radar

 A very high frequency, very high pulse repetition rate, very
narrow pulse width radar, uses a parabolic antenna.
 It is designed primarily to control gun and/or missile
systems for the destruction of targets
 Types of Radar

• Airborne Early Warning Radar

 A medium frequency, low pulse repetition rate, narrow
pulse width radar dish
 It is designed primarily for use aboard patrol aircraft to
extend the forces range of detection, thus providing early
warning of aircraft and surface craft.
Conclusion and Review
 Review

• Radio Wave Characteristics

• Basic Components of Radar
• Radar System Constants
• Factors affected by System Constants
• Detection capability of radar
• Radar terms
• Types of Radar