CHAPTER 2

The Self: Philosophical

Perspective
• A number of philosophers through ages have posited
ideas about the nature of the self. These philosophers
include David Hume, Rene Descartes, Socrates, Plato
and even Saint Augustine of Hippo among others who
remarkably have provided unique views about the real
nature of the concept we call 'self.
SOCRATES
• Socrates (470-399 BC) was a classical Greek philosopher and a
pioneer in Western moral philosophy. As a contribution to the
field of philosophy, Socrates introduced the Socratic problem
also known as the Socratic question. The goal of which was to
"Know thyself." Accordingly, there should be a dialogue between
the self and the soul. One should accept that he knows nothing
and he knows and accepts that he knows nothing as this leads
to learning and discovering the truth. Socrates who was greatly
known for his Socratic method stated that "An unexamined life
is not worth living." One has to self-examine and discuss about
the self as this is a duty to achieve what is the greatest good to
a life. It is the goal of Socratic perspective to better the quality of
human life through consistent self examination.
PLATO
• Plato (424-347 BC) was a classical Greek philosopher and the
founder of Academy in Athens, the first Institution of higher
learning in the western world. An influential figure in western
philosophy and the founder of western spirituality. Plato stated
that the 'psyche' or the 'mind' is comprised of three elements.
1. The appetites which involve our pleasur able desires such as those
which provide us physical pleasure and physiological comfort.
2. The spirited which denotes the part withinus that is agitated most of
the time. It is highly spirited and motivatedto surpass and conquer life
challenges. It is the area within us that enjoys triumph, honor, greatness
and affirmation.
3. The mind is the conscious awareness which thinks, meditates, weighs
choices and assesses situations in our lives. This side is rational
andlogical as it chooses only the best for us.
SAINT AUGUSTINE
• Saint Augustine of Hippo (AD 54-430) was a Christian theologian and
philosopher, to have greatly contributed to the progress of Western
Christianity through his writings specifically The City of God, On Christian
Doctrine and Confessions. Saint Augustine pointed onto sin as the source
of human unhappiness as sin impairs human free will. Saint Augustine
discovered and developed the concept of individual identity. He
conceptualized an idea of the self and eventually achieving an identity.
Saint Augustine identified the two-fold process comprised of self-
presentation leading to self-realization. He reiterated that one transforms
as he struggles in both body and soul to ultimately achieve happiness
specifically found in God’s love. Augustine explored on the relationship
between the mind and body which are all essential in the formation of a
person. However he stressed on the superiority of the mind over that of
the body. Understanding of the self and the formation of identity is
achieved through the process of ‘Introspection’ or ‘self-analysis.’
RENE DESCARTES
• René Descartes ( 1650) is believed to be the father of modern western
philosophy. He was a French scientific thinker, mathematician and
philosopher. Descartes developed the Cartesian philosophy which
holds that mental acts determine physical acts. Moreover he reiterated
on the role of cognition as the active acquisition of knowledge
involving the individual’s imagination, intellect, perception as well as
memory. He described the mind as the “intellectual substance” which
possesses a will. Descartes pointed onto the relation-ship between the
mind and the body. And from such insight begun his quest for true
knowledge and stated his very brilliant principle which state that
“Cogito, ergo sum” which is “I think, therefore I am.” This is a method
to assess one’s self. This is Descartes’ first theory of knowledge which
laid the foundation in his concept of self. He asserted that the idea of
being human brings about an awareness of the self which may lead to
the development of a unique identity. For Descartes being self-
conscious is necessary to develop a personal identity. The essence of
your self makes you a “thinking thing,” engaged in all forms of mental
operations determinant of being a human with a distinct persona.
JOHN LOCKE

• John Locke (1632-1704) was a prominent thinker during the “Age of

Reason. He is an English philosopher and physician. Remarkably
Locke is considered the “Father of Liberalism” as he had posited the
theory of mind which is a breakthrough in the origin of modern
understanding of the concept of identity and the selfflt. Was Locke
who developed the concept of Tabula Rasa He pointed onto the
theory that at birth, the mind is a blank slate without innate ideas,
and it is experience that provides us knowledge provided by sensory
experiences and reflections. John Locke stated that personal
identity or the self is found in the conscious ness. He identified the
brain as comprising the consciousness which has one’s identity. It is
alleged that life is a quest for the understanding of what is after
death and immortality. He argued as well that a person may only be
judged for the acts of his body but the truth according to him is that
one is liable only for the acts of which he is conscious.
DAVID HUME
• David Hume (1711-1776) a prime mover in western philosophy is a
Scottish philosopher from Edinburgh, known for his insights on the
psychological basis of human nature where he posited that passion
rather than reason governs human behavior. Hume argued against
the existence of innate ideas, positing that all human knowledge is
ultimately founded solely in experience. He reiterated that reason is
only the slave of passion which implies that logic and intellect is
basically superseded by an individual’s passion, drive and motivation.
Hume also perceived that experiences are derived from internal and
external stimulus and they create impressions on the individual.
According to Hume the self and one’s mind is like a machine that can
be turned on and off as they are only active when one is conscious.
IMMANUEL KANT
• Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804) who was born in Prussia was a great
contributor in modern western philosophy. He asserted that it is the
human mind which creates experiences. These experiences are similar
among human on the level of abstraction as we share important
characteristics that resemble in specific points of interests. Human
experiences make up our persona according to logical effects provided
by certain causes. Evidently, the development of individuality and the
self is a result of unique human experiences as it forges significant
learning within the person. More so, Kant said that every person has an
inner and outer self which comprises the consciousness. According to
Kant, the intellect as well as the psychological state of a being is what
we call as the inner self while the outer self is made of the senses and
the physical self. Largely, the object of the inner self is the ‘soul’ while
the outer self is directed to the ‘body’.
SIGMEUND FREUD
• Sigismund Schlomo Freud also known as Sigmeund Freud (1856-1939)
was a neurologist from Austria. He established psychoanalysis. This is a
school of thought revolving around the role of psychological conflicts
within the unconscious which is relevant in the development of human
behavior as well as personality. It was Freud who stated that there are
three components in the mind that interact to produce the individual
persona. This concept in the structural theory of personality involves the
id, ego, and superego which are largely found within the unconscious. The
conflict between these three components gives rise to human persona.

The id and the superego are in constant conflict brought

about by differences in their desire. As the id demands
pleasure and gratification of urges the superego requires
compliance to societal norms. The conflict is resolved by
the ego which is the self by maintaining the balance
between these two structures of the mind. Freud
considered the ego as the realistic area of one’s persona
that maintains the balance and harmony within the
individual.
GILBERT RYLE
• Gilbert Ryle (1900 – 1976) was born in Brighton, England. He
was a British philosopher, a behaviorist who coined the phrase
“the ghost in the machine.” Ryle believed that mental
phenomena are explained by observing public behavior. Ryle,
in his book The Concept of Mind’ (1949) explained how the
mental states are inseparable from the physical states. Ryle
focused on observable behavior in defining the self. He stated
that every human being has both a physical body and a non-
physical mind which are ordinarily “harnessed together” while
we arealive. According to Ryle, though the physical body is
subject to the mechanical laws; the mind, on the other hand, is
not accessible to the public and definitely never subjected to
mechanical laws. He stated that person therefore lives through
two collateral histories, one consisting of what happens in and
to his body, and other consisting of what happens in and to his
mind. The first is public, the second private. This simply
explains how the mind is operating within the person himself
while the body is subjected to the observation and criticisms of
the public.
PAUL MONTGOMERY
CHURCHLAND
• Paul Montgomery Churchland (1942-) was from
Vancouver, Canada. He is a modern-day
philosopher whose studies greatly focuses on the
workings of the brain. He argued that nothing but
matter exists' which is also known as
materialism. 'Paul hypothesized that the human
consciousness can be explained through the
neural networks communicating through its hub
in the brain which is the thalamus.
MAURICE MERLEAU PONTY
• Merleau-Ponty, a French philosopher, wrote the book
Phénoménologie de La Perception in 1945. In this book, he
expounded his thesis on The Primacy of Perception” where he
revealed how the body is central to one’s perception. As an
existentialist, Merleau-Ponty argued that perception is the
determinant of one’s consciousness. It is our prejudice that creates
the perception that we have in our mind. This is the “primacy of
perception” where Merleau-Ponty said that “there is harmony
between what we aim at and what is given, between intention and
performance.” The same provides an explanation as to Merleau-
Ponty’s claim that “consciousness is primarily not a matter of “I
think that”, but of “I can.” Hence in this argument, it shows how
action is required in the formation of self-perception as well as self-
concept.