Seamanship II

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Learning Objectives

After completing this subject, the cadet will be able to:

Acquire knowledge of the effect of cargo, including heavy lifts, on the seaworthiness
and stability of the ship

Generate knowledge of safe handling, stowage and securing of cargoes, including

dangerous, hazardous and harmful cargoes, and their effect on the safety of life and of
the ship
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Learning Objectives

After completing this subject, the cadet will be able to:

Develop Ability to establish and maintain effective communications
during loading and unloading
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Monitor the loading, stowage, securing, care during the

voyage and the unloading of cargoes
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Function

Cargo handling and stowage at the operational level

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Competence

Monitor the loading, stowage, securing, care during the

voyage and the unloading of cargoes
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Securing Cargoes
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Fundamental Securing Procedures
Shifting cargo presents hazards such as damage to the vessel or explosions. It is
important that all precautions be taken to protect cargo from shock, fire, high
temperature, moisture, or any other hazards that could lead to a catastrophe. In transit,
repairs to dunnage or resecuring shifted cargo are difficult and dangerous. The term
securing describes the procedures by which military explosives are effectively blocked,
braced, and tommed aboard merchant-type ships.
Securing is done to resist forces generated by vessel response to sea conditions and
includes various wooden structures. It also includes any straps or webs that are used to
restrain cargo stowed in the holds and on the weather deck of a ship. The terms blocking
and bracing describe more specifically the securing process. The terms are closely
related, although each function is distinctly different.
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Need for solid stow and securing of all cargoes
Cargo onboard a ship will tend to shift with the motion of the ship. This
necessitates the cargo to be lashed (secured) to the ship structure. However the lashing
with ropes/ wire ropes/ iron restraining bars is not very effective because of the fact
that the tightened lashings have a tendency to work loose with the motion of the ship.
On shore any nut which is fitted tightly on a bolt works loose with vibrations as such
- spring washers are used together with check nuts and split pins to prevent the
working loose of such nuts. This is not practical on shipboard lashings - except for
turnbuckles and bottle screws with restraint bars. Below deck lashings further are not
attended to during sailing and if they work loose it is practically impossible to do a very
effective job to re-secure them. Temporary measures are often adopted and these may
not be very effective as stated earlier.
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Need for solid stow and securing of all cargoes
Thus the only way to prevent the lashings from working loose is to stow the cargo
very close to each other and then to shore the cargo with timber. This would prevent
the cargo from acquiring momentum while swaying with the ship and thus prevent to a
large extent the working loose of the lashings.
For bagged cargo if the same is not stowed solidly and thus allowing too much of
broken stowage, would tend to shift with the motion of the ship, thus shifting the
centre of gravity laterally and inducing a list to the ship. This coupled with the heeling
of the ship would make the weather deck of a ship too close to the water line and thus
endanger the safety of the ship.
Bulk cargo on general cargo carriers are therefore saucered with the same cargo, in
order to prevent the cargo from shifting to one side.
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Need for solid stow and securing of all cargoes

Deck cargo due to the high KG is especially vulnerable lateral shifting and the
lashings work loose and also to part lashing. Especially since the transverse
momentum gained by such cargo during the rolling of a ship is liable to part
lashings. Thus all deck cargo has to be definitely shored and then also lashed to
deny the cargo from gaining any momentum.
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Cargo liable to slide during rolling, such as steel rails, should
be Stowed fore and aft
All long cargoes such as steel rails, pipes, long steel plates as well as steel coils
are stowed with their ends in the fore and aft direction. This again is necessary due
to the fact that most of theses cargo cannot be individually lashed they rather
grouped into bundles and the bundles are lashed to make many small bundles of
pipes or rails as the case may be. 
This prevents the individual pipes from sliding and since as mentioned the
transverse momentum is quite large when the ship is rolling, and the pipes are thus
prevented from damaging the sidewalls of the hold. This is severe since repeated
banging has resulted in tearing holes in the shipside plates below the waterline and
the ship capsizing due the inflow of water.
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 Blocking
Blocking is the act of attaching solid pieces of wood, or blocks, to a deck,
bulkhead, or overhead, so that these pieces lean directly against the cargo to
prevent its movement. Blocking must be braced, shored, or tommed to be
effective. The basic technique of blocking from which more complex securing
structures are developed. Additional bracing would be required to secure the item
adequately. Since blocking may be nailed directly into the wooden deck, the load
may be secured in any location in the hold without the need for extending pieces to
permanent ship's structures for bracing. Since it is very difficult to drive nails into a
metal deck, 4- by 4-inch lumber must be extended to the bulkhead to provide
necessary bracing.
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Shoring and Tomming
Shoring, which includes blocking and bracing, is the process of securing cargo
to prevent side-to-side movement by supporting it from the side. Shoring may also
be used to prevent downward movement by supporting cargo from below.
Tomming is the securing of cargo to prevent upward movement. Personnel secure
the cargo by running lumber from the ship's overhead structure down to the cargo
either vertically or at an angle.
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Lashing
 Lashing is the securing of cargo for transportation with the goal of minimizing
shifting. Items used for lashing include ropes, cables, wires, chains, strapping,
and nets. These items are anchored to the container and tensioned against the
cargo. Another form of lashing used four devices attached to the top of each corner
of a container. Lashing is products and methods are governed by various authorities
such as the Association of American Railroads (AAR) for rail transportation in North
America, the international Maritime Organization (IMO) for ocean transportation
and the National Motor Freight Traffic Association (NMFTA).
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Lashing
 Lashing is the securing of cargo for transportation with the goal of minimizing
shifting. Items used for lashing include ropes, cables, wires, chains, strapping,
and nets. These items are anchored to the container and tensioned against the
cargo. Another form of lashing used four devices attached to the top of each corner
of a container. Lashing is products and methods are governed by various authorities
such as the Association of American Railroads (AAR) for rail transportation in North
America, the international Maritime Organization (IMO) for ocean transportation
and the National Motor Freight Traffic Association (NMFTA).
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Choking
The process of securing cargo inside a
container. This includes strapping,
dunnaging or using air cushions to
stabilize the cargo. Proper choking of
cargo reduces the risk of damage during
transport of both the cargo and the
container.
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Methods of Securing Cargo
1. Cargo shall be secured according to recognised principles, taking into account
the dynamic forces that may occur during sea transport and the most severe
weather condition expected. Ship handling decisions should take into account
the type of cargo and stowage position of the cargo and the securing
arrangements.
Care should be taken to distribute the forces as evenly as possible.
If in doubt the lashing arrangement should be verified using an acceptable
calculation method.
The securing gear should be adapted to the cargo to be carried.
Lashings are to be kept as short as possible.
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Methods of Securing Cargo
2. Prior to loading cargo, the following should be checked:

Relevant deck areas are, as far as practicable, to be clean, dry and free from oil
and grease.
Cargo, cargo transport unit or vehicle to be suitable for transport.
Necessary securing equipment is to be found onboard.
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Methods of Securing Cargo
3. The securing equipment should be:

available in sufficient quantity including reserves

suitable for the purpose
of adequate strength
practical and maintained

The required strength, which depends on the lashing forces, can be calculated
based on methods for evaluating forces.
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Methods of Securing Cargo
4. Securing operations shall be completed before the ship leaves the berth and the
securing should be based on proper planning, execution and supervision.
Relevant personnel should be properly qualified and experienced and should
have a sound practical knowledge of the application and content of this Cargo
Securing Manual.
The master shall take care in planning and supervising the stowage and securing of
cargoes based on information about the cargo.
The cargo is to be distributed with attention to the ship stability so that the
hazards of excessive accelerations are reduced as far as practicable.
Due attention to the ship’s structural strength should be taken.
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Methods of Securing Cargo
5. Where practicable, cargo units shall be provided with a Cargo Stowage and
Securing Declaration, stating that the cargo has been properly stowed and
secured, taking into account the CARGO SECURING MANUAL FOR M/S TEST
VESSEL Page 12 IMO/ILO Guidelines for Packing Cargo in Freight Containers or
Vehicles. In general, cargo carried in containers, road vehicles, ship borne
barges, railway wagons and other transport units should be properly packed
and secured within these units. Relevant expertise should be called for, if found
necessary, when considering the shipment of a cargo with unusual
characteristics, i.e. cargo which may require special attention to location,
stowage/securing and weather conditions.
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Methods of Securing Cargo
6. If the duty officer considers that a cargo is not safely secured to a cargo unit,
measures shall be taken to avoid shifting of the cargo. If adequate measures are
not possible, due to the nature of the cargo or lack of securing points, the cargo
unit shall not be taken on board. Reference in this respect is made to TfK Report
1990:6E “Loading and Securing Cargo on Load Carriers, Advice and instructions”.
7. The securing arrangements shall be adequate to ensure that there will be no
movement which will endanger the ship. Slackening of the securing gear due to
cargoes which have a tendency to deform or to compact during voyage shall be
avoided. Cargoes with low friction coefficient should also be tightly stowed
across the ship to avoid sliding. Suitable material such as soft boards or dunnage
should be used to increase friction.
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Methods of Securing Cargo
8. Cargo units containing hanging loads (e.g. chilled meat, floated glass) and very
high cargo units are, because of the relatively high position of the centre of
gravity, particularly prone to tipping. Whenever possible they should be located
in positions of least movement i.e. on the centre line, towards amidships and
on a deck near the waterline.
9. Safe means of access to securing arrangements, safety equipment, and
operational controls shall be provided and properly maintained. Stairways and
escape routes from spaces below the vehicle deck shall be kept clear. The cargo
spaces should be, as far as practicable, regularly inspected during voyage.
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Methods of Securing Cargo
10. Lashings shall not be released for unloading before the ship is secured at the
berth, without the Masters express permission.
11. Cargo shall not obstruct the operating controls of stern doors, entrances to
accommodation and/or fire fighting equipment.
12. Dangerous goods shall be segregated, stowed and secured according to the
IMDG code and valid instructions for this ship.
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Heavy loads and Heavy lifts
Heavy-lift items and project cargo are often of high value and great weight.
They may have delicate parts that must not be contacted and they may or may not
be suitable for carriage on deck, which will undoubtedly mean wetting by rain and
sea water. They must be fitted with lifting points and lashing points that are of
adequate strength and positioned in appropriate places. The carriage of these
items should be planned in great detail from origin to destination. Of particular
interest here is the planning of the stowage and securing.
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Stowing and securing vehicles and trailers
Wheel-based cargoes, in the context of these guidelines, are all cargoes
which are provided with wheels or tracks, including those which are used for
the stowage and transport of other cargoes, except trailers and road-trains
(covered by chapter 4 of this Code), but including buses, military vehicles with
or without tracks, tractors, earth-moving equipment, roll-trailers, etc.
The cargo spaces in which wheel-based cargo is to be stowed should be dry, clean
and free from grease and oil.
Wheel-based cargoes should be provided with adequate and clearly marked
securing points or other equivalent means of sufficient strength to which lashings
may be applied.
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Stowing and securing vehicles and trailers
Wheel-based cargoes which are not provided with securing points should have
those places, where lashings may be applied, clearly marked.
Wheel-based cargoes, which are not provided with rubber wheels or tracks with
friction-increasing lower surface, should always be stowed on wooden dunnage
or other friction-increasing material such as soft boards, rubber mats, etc.
When in stowage position, the brakes of a wheel-based unit, if so equipped,
should be set.
Wheel-based cargoes should be secured to the ship by lashings made of material
having strength and elongation characteristics at least equivalent to steel chain or
wire.
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Stowing and securing vehicles and trailers
Where possible, wheel-based cargoes, carried as part cargo, should be stowed close
to the ship's side or in stowage positions which are provided with sufficient securing
points of sufficient strength, or be block-stowed from side to side of the cargo space.
To prevent any lateral shifting of wheel-based cargoes not provided with adequate
securing points, such cargoes should, where practicable, be stowed close to the
ship's side and close to each other, or be blocked off by other suitable cargo units
such as loaded containers, etc.
To prevent the shifting of wheel-based cargoes, it is, where practicable, preferable to
stow those cargoes in a fore-and-aft direction rather than athwartships. If wheel-
based cargoes are inevitably stowed athwartships, additional securing of sufficient
strength may be necessary. 
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Stowing and securing vehicles and trailers

The wheels of wheel-based cargoes should be blocked to prevent shifting.

Cargoes stowed on wheel-based units should be adequately secured to stowage

platforms or, where provided with suitable means, to its sides. Any movable
external components attached to a wheel-based unit, such as derricks, arms or
turrets should be adequately locked or secured in position.
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Cargo securing arrangements
Particular care should be taken to distribute forces as evenly as practicable
between the cargo securing devices. If this is not feasible, the arrangements
should be upgraded accordingly.
If, due to the complex structure of a securing arrangement or other
circumstances, the person in charge is unable to assess the suitability of the
arrangement from experience and knowledge of good seamanship, the
arrangement should be verified by using an acceptable calculation method.
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Passenger operations
A passenger ship is a merchant ship whose primary function is to carry
passengers. The type does however include many classes of ships designed to
transport substantial numbers of passengers as well as freight. Indeed until
recently virtually all ocean liners were able to transport mail, package freight and
express and other king posts, or other cargo-handling gear, cargo holds and
derricks were equipped for the purpose. Only in more recent ocean liners and
virtually all cruise ships has this cargo capacity been eliminated.
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Deck Cargo
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Cargo Securing Manual

.
The purpose of the CSS Code is to provide an international
standard to promote the safe stowage and securing of
cargoes

Ships carrying cargo units and other entities covered in

this Code and as outlined in resolution A. 489(XII)
(appendix) should carry a Cargo Securing Manual as
detailed in MSC/Circ. 385.
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Deck Cargo
Cargo which are normally carried on deck include the following but are not
limited to these and many exceptional cargoes may be carried and also have been
carried in the past.
Dangerous cargo – IMDG cargo not permitted on deck
Large packages which due to any size restriction may have to be loaded on to the
deck
The above includes engineering or construction equipment
Odd size package
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Deck Cargo
Where the bulk volume far exceeds the weight of the cargo – knocked down
bridges, port equipment – not easily liable to weather damage.
Occasionally livestock in limited numbers
Onions or other perishables – short voyages with the weather holding
Yachts – luxury boats.
Cast iron goods – man hole covers – pipes.
The list is endless and it all depends on the routes, the trading pattern and the
weather.
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Deck Cargo
The cargo whether on deck or under deck stow has to be stowed well and the cargo
should be prevented from moving and gaining enough momentum to part lashings and
damage the ship structure.
Deck cargo is liable to damage itself – fall overboard and thus be lost. However the
misery does not stop here in the act of parting lashing and going overboard the deck
cargo unleashes considerable damage to the ship structure as well as the crewmembers.
Small apparently insignificant items such as sounding pipes and air pipes are often
torn out and this may endanger the ship from the resulting chances of flooding lower
down compartments. Crewmembers ordered to lash cargo where the lashings have
parted have been seriously injured and some have lost lives combating the shifting
cargo.
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Deck Cargo
The point is to have a good solid stow – prevent the cargo from shifting and
gaining momentum with the shift. Since this would part any strong lashing. The
lashing undertaken should be for the worst sea condition that may be experienced.
Deck cargo loading on top of hatch covers should be carefully planned. All
loading of under deck spaces should have been completed – lashing may continue
with portable lights.
The hatch covers should be closed and battened down – all side wedges as well
as cross wedges (centre wedges) should have been fitted. With the hatch cover
sealed for sea, the space should then be given out for loading of deck cargo.
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Deck Cargo
The permissible load density of the hatch covers should be checked and timbers
laid to spread the weight of the cargo. The load density of the hatch covers are
given for a new vessel and as the ship ages the load density would reduce due to
fatigue of the metal as well as wear and tear. Thus the utmost need to spread the
weight using timber.
Shoring and toming of the hatch cover from below deck is practically useless
since the hatch cover moves/ slides somewhat with the motion of the ship.
The height of the cargo on the hatch covers as well as that on deck should not
be so high that the view is obstructed from the Navigating Bridge.
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Deck Cargo
The weight of the ice may be in excess of a hundred tonnes, and thus the
danger of a ship regarding stability.
As with the above any deck cargo for that matter would have a very high KG as
such the GM (F) would be quite small. Especially in the case of GC vessels, which do
not have a very large GM (F) the loading of deck cargo, is bound to lead to further
loss of GM (F). If the ship loads the deck cargo with her own gear then the ship
would during the loading operation have still further low GM (F) due to the KG of
the load being at the top of the derrick/ crane for part of the loading sequence.
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Deck Cargo

A derrick is a lifting device composed at minimum of one guyed mast, as in a gin

pole, which may be articulated over a load by adjusting its guys. Most derricks
have at least two components, either a guyed mast or self-supporting tower, and
a boom hinged at its base to provide articulation, as in a stiffleg derrick
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Deck Cargo

Where the bulk volume far exceeds the weight of the cargo – knocked down
bridges, port equipment – not easily liable to weather damage.

Cargo choking is done using heavy wooden blocks or logs in different sizes and
weight to give support to the base of the goods. This will ensure that cargoes are
secured onto the surface and cannot be detached during transportation. That way,
your cargoes will be safe and free from damage upon arrival.Au
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Deck Cargo
Containers on deck
Containers when they are loaded on deck are subject to the following consideration – barring
stability, which would have been planned for.

1 Stowage
1.1 Containers carried on deck or on hatches of such ships should preferably be stowed in the
fore-and-aft direction.

1.2 Containers should not extend over the ship's sides. Adequate supports should be provided
when containers overhang hatches or deck structures.
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1.3 Containers should be stowed and secured so as to permit safe access for personnel in the
necessary operation of the ship.

1.4 Containers should at no time overstress the deck or hatches on which they are stowed.

1.5 Bottom-tier containers, when not resting on stacking devices, should be stowed on timber of
sufficient thickness, arranged in such a way as to transfer the stack load evenly on to the structure
of the stowage area
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2 Securing

2.1 All containers should be effectively secured in such a way as to protect them from sliding and
tipping. Hatch covers carrying containers should be adequately secured to the ship.

2.2 Containers should be secured using one of the three methods recommended in figure 1 or
methods equivalent thereto.

2.3 Lashings should preferably consist of wire ropes or chains or material with equivalent strength
and elongation characteristics.

2.4 Timber shoring should not exceed 2 m in length.

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In general the close stow is difficult on GC vessels where the container is usually
loaded between the hatch coaming and the bulwark. So the container should be
loaded as close as possible to the hatch coaming, as well as close to the Mast
House structure. If few containers are being loaded then the shelter offered by the
Mast House structure should be kept in mind.
The load is spread by having the container loaded onto timbers at least 4” x 4”.
The timbers should be extended to well beyond the shoe of the container in all
directions to spread the load. Once this is done the chocking of the container is
started. Again heavy timbers are used and the container is first secured to prevent
any lateral and transverse shifting. While selecting chocking points all heavy
framework should be selected. Bulwark stays are not strengthened enough to be
used as chocking points.
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Hatch coamings may be used and as a last resort bulwark stays. After the
chocking is completed the container is lashed. The lashing is further to prevent the
longitudinal as well as the transverse shifting. For this the base shoes offer the best
lashing points. To prevent the container being bodily shifted out the lashings are
continued to the top shoes.
All lashing should be separate in the sense that a single lashing wire should not
be passed over a few shoes and then lashed at the final point. Each lashing should
have a turnbuckle or bottle screw incorporated and there should be at least 60%
free thread in them after completion of lashing.
The bottom lashing and the top lashing should not be counted together fore the
purpose of assessing the total number of lashings taken for the container. The top
lashings are for bodily rise and as such should be counted separately.
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This shows a container ship lashing; note

that the container is loaded onto the ship
shoe slots which are strengthened, the
rod lashings are only for the top of the
containers.
Here the bottom shoes are not lashed
since the ships sunken shoes and twist
locks effectively chock and lash the
bottom of the container.
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Stowage and Lashing of Timber deck cargoes as laid down by
IMO code of Safe Practice for Ships Carrying Timber Deck
Cargoes
The purpose of the Code is to make recommendations on stowage, securing
and other operational safety measures designed to ensure the safe transport of
mainly timber deck cargoes.
This Code applies to all ships of 24 m or more in length engaged in the carriage
of timber deck cargoes. Ships that are provided with and making use of their
timber load line should also comply with the requirements of the applicable
regulations of the Load Line Convention.
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Stowage and Lashing of Timber deck cargoes as laid down by
IMO code of Safe Practice for Ships Carrying Timber Deck
Cargoes
The purpose of the Code is to make recommendations on stowage, securing
and other operational safety measures designed to ensure the safe transport of
mainly timber deck cargoes.
This Code applies to all ships of 24 m or more in length engaged in the carriage
of timber deck cargoes. Ships that are provided with and making use of their
timber load line should also comply with the requirements of the applicable
regulations of the Load Line Convention.
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Deck Cargo
Timber load line
A special load line assigned to ships complying with certain conditions related
to their construction set out in the International Convention on Load Lines and
used when the cargo complies with the stowage and securing conditions of this
Code. Weather deck means the uppermost complete deck exposed to weather and
sea.
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Deck Cargo
The stability of the ship
Including during the process of loading and unloading timber deck cargo, should be
positive and to a standard acceptable to the Administration. It should be calculated
having regard to:
The increased weight of the timber deck cargo due to:
Absorption of water in dried or seasoned timber, and
Ice accretion, if applicable;
Variations in consumables;
The free surface effect of liquid in tanks; and
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Deck Cargo
Weight of water trapped in broken spaces within the timber deck cargo and
especially logs.
Safety precautions to be taken as far as stability of the ship is concerned
The master should:
Cease all loading operations if a list develops for which there is no satisfactory explanation
and it would be imprudent to continue loading;
Before proceeding to sea, ensure that:
The ship is upright;
The ship has an adequate metacentric height; and
The ship meets the required stability criteria.
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Deck Cargo

Ships carrying timber deck cargoes should operate, as far as possible, with a safe
margin of stability and with a metacentric height which is consistent with safety
requirements but such metacentric height should not be allowed to fall below the
recommended minimum
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