Chapter 2a

Cell Structure

Dr. Garcia, Caridad D.

College of Nursing Mabini Colleges
Daet, Camarines Norte
4600 PHILIPPINES

[email protected]
 Chapter Objective

 Compare and contrast the overall cell

structure of prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Comparing Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells

• Prokaryote: Greek words for prenucleus
• Eukaryote: true nucleus
 Types of Living Cells (according to structure)

 Procaryotes:  Eucaryotes:
- Cell membrane - Cell membrane
- Cytoplasm - Cytoplasm
- One circular - Paired
chromosome, not in a chromosomes, in
membrane nuclear membrane
- No histones - Histones
- No organelles - Organelles
- Peptidoglycan cell walls - Polysaccharide cell
walls
- Binary Fission
- Mitotic spindle
Types of Living Cells (according to structure)

 Procaryotes:  Eucaryotes:
- Bacteria (Eubacteria) - Fungi
- Blue algae - Protozoa
(microscopic) - Algae
- Fungi - Plants
(microscopic) - Animals US
- Protozoa
(single-celled)
- Virus
THEM
Relationships of Microorganisms
PROCARYOTES or PROCARYOTIC CELLS:
MORPHOLOGY

Cell Size:
 Dimensions of most bacterial cells:
 Diameter: 0.2 to 2.0 m.
 Human red blood cell is about 7.5-10 m
in diameter.
 Length: 2 to 8 m.
 Some cyanobacteria are up to 60 m
long.
Size of Living Things

1 m = 100 cm = 1,000mm = 1,000,000 µm = 1,000,000,000nm

1mm = 1000 µm = 1000000nm
1 µm = 1000nm

Diagrams: http://www.cellsalive.com/howbig.htm
Bacterial Cell Size Compared to
Eucaryotic Cells and Viruses
Learning Objective:

 Identify
the three basic shapes
of bacteria
Bacterial Shapes & Arrangements

1. Coccus (plural: cocci): Spherical or

ellipsoidal; “berries”
May have the following arrangements:
 Diplococci: pair; divide in 1 plane
 Streptococci: Chains; divide in 1 plane
 Tetrads: Groups of four. Divide in two planes.
 Sarcinae: Groups of eight. Cuboidal. Divide
in three planes.
 Staphylococci: Grapelike clusters or
bunches. Divide in multiple planes.
Typical Arrangements of Cocci

streptococci

sarcina

staphylococci
Q: How do the planes of division
determine the arrangement of cells?
diplococci
a. Division in 1 plane produces __________
and _______________.
streptoococci
b. Division in 2 planes produces
_________.
tetrads
sarcinae
c. Division in 3 planes produces _________.
d. Division in multiple planes produces
____________.
staphylococci
 Bacterial Shapes & Arrangements:

2. Bacillus (plural: bacilli): Rod-like or

cylindrical. Most bacilli appear as
single rods but you may see:
 Diplobacilli: pair. Divide in 1 plane.
 Streptobacilli: Chain. Divide in 1 plane
Coccobacillus: Intermediate shape
between coccus and bacillus. Oval
rods.
Arrangements
of bacilli:
Q: Why don’t bacilli form
tetrads or clusters?

Answer:
Bacilli only divide across
their short axis, so there
are fewer groupings of
bacilli than of cocci.
Rod-Shaped Bacteria
“Bacillus” has 2 meanings in
microbiology:

 Bacterial shape
 When capitalized & italicized, it
refers to a specific genus
Bacillus anthracis (anthrax)
Q: What is the difference
between the term bacillus and
Bacillus?
 bacillus is the bacterial shape
 Bacillus is a bacterial genus
Double-
stranded helix
formed by
Bacillus
subtilis.

Bacillus cells
often remain
attached to
each other,
forming
extended
chains.
Bacterial Shapes & Arrangements:

3.Spiral Bacteria: Have one or more

twists; never straight:
 Vibrio: comma shaped; curved rods
 Spirilla: Helical, corkscrew shaped
bacteria with rigid bodies.
 Use whiplike external flagella to move.
 Spirochetes: Helical bacteria with
flexible bodies.
 Use axial filaments (internal flagella) to
move.
Arrangements
of spiral
bacteria:
 Spirochete:
Borrelia burgdorferi
Spiral-Shaped Bacteria
Q: What is the distinguishing
feature of spirochete
bacteria?

 Spiral
bacteria have one or
more twists; they are
never straight.
 Unusual shapes (Prokaryotes)
– Star-shaped Stella
– Square Haloarcula (halophilic archaea – salt-loving)
– Triangular
– Pear-shaped
– Disks arranged like stack of coins
– Rods with square ends

Figure 4.5
Other arrangements:

 TRICHOMES – chain but with

larger contact between adjacent
cells

 PALISADE – cells are lined

side by side like matchsticks &
at angles to one another
 Recall: What are the
common bacterial shapes?

 Spherical: coccus; cocci

 Rod-shaped: bacillus; bacilli
 Spiral: vibrio, spirilla, spirochete
Recall: What are the common
bacterial arrangements?
 Seatwork: Identify the shape

(1)
(2)

(3)
Seatwork: Identify the shape

(4) (5)

(6)
Seatwork: Identify the arrangement

(7)
(8)

(10)
(9)
 Classification of Bacteria
(according to number of shapes assumed)

 Pleomorphic bacteria: have several

possible shapes.
Found in a few groups:
Corynebacterium
Rhizobium
 Monomorphic: Maintain a single
shape.
However environmental factors
may affect cell shape.
Procaryotic Cell
Structure
Structures External
to the Cell Wall

Learning Objective:
Describe the structure & function
of the glycocalyx, flagella, axial
filaments, fimbriae, & pili.
 Gram Stain (1884)
Hans Christian Joachim Gram, Danish microbiologist

 The most useful staining procedure in

medical microbiology.
 Distinguishes bacteria of two large and
medically important groups:
 Gram-positive bacteria
 Gram-negative bacteria
 Provides useful information for disease
treatment.
Gram Staining

Bacillus anthracis

Escherichia coli
Procaryotic Cell
Structure
Bacterial Appendages
or Cell Extensions
 Flagella

 Axial Filaments

 Fimbriae
1. Flagella (pl); flagellum (sing)
“Bacterial Propellers”
 Hairlike
 Long, thin, helical
appendages
 One or several
 Flagellar Arrangements
 Monotrichous:
Single polar flagellum
at one end
 Amphitrichous:
Two polar flagella,
one at each end
 Lophotrichous: Two
or more flagella at
one or both ends.
 Peritrichous: Many
flagella over entire
cell surface.
Basic Parts of a Flagellum
1. Filament - Outermost region.
Certain pathogenic bacteria Flagellin: globular protein
Unlike eucaryotic filaments it
can be identified by their is NOT covered by a sheath
flagellar protein. 2. Hook - anchors the filament
to basal body; wider segment
Flagellar protein H 3. Basal Body – anchors the
antigens flagellum to the cell wall &
plasma membrane; complex
E. coli O157:H7: structure with a central rod
surrounded by a set of rings
Causes bloody diarrhea  Gram negative bacteria
associated with have 2 pairs of rings.
foodborne epidemics.  Gram positive bacteria
only have one pair of
Causes 200-500 deaths rings.
per year.
Q: How do the basal bodies of
Gram-negative & Gram-
positive bacteria differ?
 Gram-negative bacteria contain 2
pairs of rings: the outer pair is
anchored to various portions of the
cell wall, & the inner pair is anchored
to the plasma membrane.
 Gram-positive bacteria: has only 1
pair of inner ring.
Patterns of Bacterial
Motility  Bacterial flagella move by
rotation from basal body.
 Clockwise;
counterclockwise
 patterns of motility:
 Runs or swims:
Bacterium moves in one
direction
 Tumbles: Bacterium
changes direction;
Caused by reversal of
flagellar rotation
Taxes (plural) taxis (sing.): bacterial movement

In response to a Types:
stimulus  Positive = towards
 Photo (light)  Negative = away
 Chemo (chemical)

Phototaxis: Positive Phototaxis

Negative Phototaxis
Chemotaxis: Positive Chemotaxis
Negative Chemotaxis
2. Axial Filament or Endoflagella or
Periplasmic Flagella (in Spirochetes)
 Bundles of fibers
 anchored at ends of the cell
beneath the outer sheath
 Spiral around the cell
 Rotation of endoflagella
produces a corkscrew motion
 May enable bacteria to
penetrate body tissues.
 Found in spirochetes:
 Treponema pallidum: Cause of
syphilis
 Borrelia burgdorferi: Cause of
Lyme disease
Axial Filament or Endoflagella or Periplasmic Flagella (in Spirochetes)
Q: How do spirochetes &
spirilla differ?
 Spirochetes move by means of
axial filaments, which resemble
flagella but are contained within
a flexible external sheath.
 Spirilla use whiplike
appendages called flagella to
move.
 Fimbria & Pilus

 Hairlike appendages that are

shorter, straighter, and thinner
than flagella.
 Used for attachment rather than
motility.
 Found in Gram-negative bacteria.
3. Fimbriae (sing: fimbria)
 May occur at poles or over
entire cell surface
 Like glycocalyx, enable
bacteria to adhere to
surfaces. Important for
colonization of host tissue.
 Neisseria gonorrhoeae:
Causes gonorrhea. Attach to
sperm cells and mucous
membranes through fimbriae.
 Bacteria can attach to broth
surface via fimbriae, forming
a film-like layer called
pellicle.
Meet the Microbe! Neisseria and its Fimbiriae
Gram negative diplococci, resemble coffee beans
when viewed microscopically. Class
Betaproteobacteria.
Neisseria gonorrhoeae responsible for sexually
transmitted disease gonorrhoeae.
Antibiotics applied to the eyes of neonates as a
preventive measure against gonorrhoea
(ophthalmia neonatorum)
N. meningitidis most common causes of bacterial
meningitis in young adults.
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of the cell wall of Neisseria
acts as an endotoxin. Polysaccharide capsule
prevents host phagocytosis and aids in evasion of
the host immune response.
This bacteria use fimbriae to attach onto host cells
and are avirulent without fimbriae.
Fimbriae have adhesion proteins (adhesins) on their
tips that match, lock and key, with proteins on
host epithelial cell surface.
Fimbriae (sing: fimbria)
4. Pilus (sing); Pili (plural) Conjugation or Sex Pili

 Only found in certain groups of bacteria

 Longer than fimbriae
 Cells only have one or two sex pili
 Attach two cells together, and allow the
transfer of genetic material (DNA)
between cells
 Medically important because allow for the
transfer of antibiotic resistance
genes from one cell to another.
Q: What is the function of
fimbriae?

 Fimbrae enable a cell to

adhere to surfaces, including
the surface of other cells.
Bacterial Cell Envelope

1. Glycocalyx (varies in structure)

2. Cell Wall (varies in structure)
3. Cell Membrane
1. Glycocalyx or “sugar coat”
Viscous, sticky, gelatinous
 Polysaccharide
 Polypeptide
 or both
Outside the cell wall
a. Capsule
b. Slime layer
 Capsule

• Organized

• Firmly attached
to the cell wall
• Not formed in all
bacteria
 Capsule Virulence – the capacity the invade
& harm or produce a disease
Functions:
 Important in virulence.
 Bacillus anthracis (anthrax bacteria) causes
anthrax if it has a protein capsule
 Only Streptococcus pneumoniae with capsule
cause pneumonia
 Haemophilus influenzae (one cause of
meningitis)
 Protection: Help bacteria escape the host
immune system, by preventing destruction by
phagocytosis.
When bacteria lose their capsules they
become less likely to cause disease and more
susceptible to destruction.
Slime Layer

• Thin
polysaccharide
substance
•Unorganized
• Loosely attached
to the cell wall
• Not formed in all
bacteria
 Slime Layer
Functions:
 Important for virulence.
 Streptococcus mutans (Oral bacteria)
stick to teeth due to slime layer and with
time produce dental plaque.
 Attachment: Allow bacteria to adhere to
objects in their environment so they can
remain near sources of nutrients or
oxygen.
 Rock surfaces
 Plant roots
 Help bacteria trap nutrients near cell and
prevent dehydration.
 Slime Layer

Biofilm: A complex
association that
arises from a
mixture of
microorganisms
growing
together on a
surface of a
habitat
Bacteria with slime layer
can persistently
colonize medical
devices such as
catheters, artificial
heart valves, ,contact
lenses, joint
prostheses,
intrauterine devices &
other inanimate
objects placed in the
body.
Staphylococcus
epidermidis
Staphylococcus aureus
Seatwork: What function might a
capsule serve the following bacteria?

a. A pathogenic bacterium
b. A soil bacterium where the soil is
periodically subjected to drought
conditions
c. A bacterium living in a flowing
stream
2. The Prokaryotic Cell Wall
Prokaryotic Cell Wall
Learning Objectives:
 Compare & contrast the cell walls of
Gram-negative bacteria, Gram-
positive bacteria, acid-fast bacteria,
archae, & mycoplasmas.
 Differentiate between protoplast,
spheroplast, & L-form.
 The Prokaryotic Cell Wall

General Characteristics:
 Semirigid structure

 Lies outside the cell membrane in

almost all bacteria
 Surrounds the underlying, fragile
cytoplasmic memberane
 Very porous and does not regulate
passage of materials into the cell
 The Prokaryotic Cell Wall

Determines cell In some cases

shape recognized by host
immune system

Prevents osmotic
Target for
lysis
antibiotics

Point of
anchorage for Part of cell
flagella envelope
 Composition of the Cell Wall

 Peptidoglycan (Murein)
Mucopolysaccharide
repeating disaccharide w/
4-5 Amino Acids attached
by polypeptides to form a
lattice:
N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)
N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM)
Alternating disaccharides
(NAG-NAM) are linked
together in rows of 10 to 65
molecules.
Gram-Positive Cell Wall Structure

The small arrows

denote where
penicillin interferes
w/ linkage of
peptidoglycan rows.

Penicillin interferes
with the final linking
of peptidoglycan rows
by peptide cross
bridges. As a result,
the cell wall is greatly
weakened and cell
undergoes lysis.
 Gram-Positive Cell Walls

 Several layers of peptidoglycan =

thick, rigid structure (20-80 nm)
 Teichoic acids, = alcohol +
phosphate
Two types:
 Lipoteichoic acids: Span cell wall,
linked to cell membrane.
 Wall teichoic acids: Linked to
peptidoglycan layer.
 Gram-Positive Cell Walls

 Teichoic acids are negatively

charged and:
 Bind to and regulate movement of
cations into & out of the cell
 Regulate cell growth and prevent cell
lysis
 Can be used to identify bacteria (cell wall
specificity)
 Gram-Negative Cell Walls

 Cell wall is thinner, more complex and

more susceptible to mechanical breakage
than that of Gram-positive bacteria.
 Consist of one or a few peptidoglycan
layers and an outer membrane.
 Peptidoglycan is bonded to lipoproteins in:
 Outer membrane
 Periplasmic space: Region between outer
membrane and plasma membrane.
 Periplasmic space contains degradative
enzymes and transport proteins.
Gram-Negative Cell Walls
 Gram-Negative Cell Walls
Outer Membrane (OM):
 Consists of:

 Phospholipid bilayer
 Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) with two
components:
 O polysaccharides: Antigens, used to
identify bacteria.
 Lipid A: Endotoxin causes fever and shock.
 Porins: Membrane proteins that allow the
passage of nucleotides, disaccharides,
peptides, amino acids, vitamins, and iron.
 Lipoproteins
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
- Antigen
- ID

Carbohydrate has
negative charge and
provides protection
against some
antibiotics & some
toxins (e.g.,
detergents).

Lipid A =
Endotoxin
 Gram-Negative Cell Walls

 Functions of Outer Membrane:

 Evade phagocytosis and
complement due to strong
negative charge.
 Barrier to antibiotics (penicillin),
digestive enzymes (lysozyme),
detergents, heavy metals, dyes,
and bile salts.
Gram-Negative LPS: Protection from
Cell Envelope
antibiotics such as
penicillin plus against
certain toxins

Periplasm: Site
of preliminary
nutrient
degradation
Gram summary

Gram-Positive vs. Gram-Negative

 Thick  Thin peptidoglycan
peptidoglycan  No teichoic acids
 Teichoic acids  Outer membrane
(alcohol + - evades
phosphate) phagocytosis
 In acid-fast cells,
- barrier to certain
contains mycolic
antibiotics
acid (waxy lipid) –
allows them to be
grouped into
significant types
Gram summary
Gram positive versus gram negative
Q: What are the major
structural differences
between Gram-positive &
Gram-negative cell walls?
Seatwork: What type of bacterial cell wall is
represented by each diagram. Justify your answer.

Techoic acid Lipopolysaccharide

Phospholipid

Lipoprotein
Peptidoglycan

Peptidoglycan

Plasma Membrane Plasma membrane

A B
Atypical Cell Walls
1. Acid-Fast Bacteria: Mycobacterium & Nocardia
 Cell wall is thick like that of Gram-positive
bacteria
 Contains 60% lipids and much less
peptidoglycan. Has a waxy consistency
Mycolic Acid: contributes to pathogenicity
 Lipids make cells impermeable to many stains,
and protect them from acids, alkalis, and
antibiotics
 Organisms grow slowly because nutrients
penetrate inefficiently and cells spend a lot of
energy making lipids.
 Stain as Gram-positive
 Atypical Cell Walls
2. Mycoplasmas:
 Smallest known bacteria that can grow
and reproduce outside of host cells.
 They have NO cell wall

 Pass through most bacterial filters.

Originally mistaken for viruses
 Unique plasma membrane contains lipids
called sterols, which protect them from
osmotic lysis
Mycoplasma lack Cell Walls
Note:
Pleomorphic

Mycoplasma pneumoniae
causes “Walking Pneumonia”
 Atypical Cell Walls
3. Archaebacteria
 May lack cell walls or have cell walls
without peptidoglycan.
 pseudomurein

N-acetyltalosaminuronic acid
instead of NAM
 lacks D-amino acids found in
bacterial cell walls
 cannot be Gram-stained but appear
Gram-negative because they do not
contain peptidoglycan
 Damage to Cell Walls
 Lysozyme digests disaccharide in
peptidoglycan (gram+ cell walls destroyed,
gram- damaged, resulting in spheroplast).
 Spheroplast is a wall-less Gram-positive cell.
 Penicillin inhibits peptide bridges in
peptidoglycan.
 Protoplast is a wall-less cell.
 L forms are wall-less cells that swell into
irregular shapes (gram+ and -).
 Protoplasts and spheroplasts are susceptible
to osmotic lysis.
3. Cell Membrane; Plasma Membrane;
Cytoplasmic Membrane

Learning Objectives:
 Describe the structure, chemistry, &
functions of the prokaryotic plasma
membrane.
 Define simple diffusion, facilitated
diffusion, osmosis, active transport, &
group translocation.
3. Cell Membrane; Plasma Membrane;
Cytoplasmic Membrane
3. Cell Membrane; Plasma Membrane;
Cytoplasmic Membrane
 Thin structure inside of cell wall that surrounds the
cytoplasm (7.5 nm or 0.0075 m)
 Phospholipid bilayer with proteins (Fluid mosaic
model)
 Integral membrane proteins: Penetrate membrane
Fluid Mosaic Model: the dynamic
completely.
arrangement
 Peripheral of phospholipids
membrane proteins: On& proteins
inner or outerin
membrane surface.
the plasma membrane making such move
 Lack sterols and are less rigid than eucaryotic
quite freely
membranes. in association with the function
performed.
 Exception: Mycoplasmas
 Functions of the Plasma
(Cytoplasmic) Membrane

1. Selective barrier that regulates the

passage of materials in and out of the
cell.
 Impermeable to large proteins,
ions, and most polar molecules.
 Permeable to H2O, O2, CO2, some
simple sugars, and small nonpolar
substances.
Functions of the Plasma (Cytoplasmic)
Membrane:

2. Nutrient breakdown and energy (ATP)

production: Site of cellular respiration.

Enzyme content  catalyze chemical reactions

 Breakdown of Carbohydrates ATP production

3. Synthesis of cell wall components

4. Assists with DNA replication
Functions of the Plasma (Cytoplasmic)
Membrane

5. Site of photosynthesis
Chromatophores or Thylakoids in
Photosynthetic bacteria (Rhodospirillum)
6. Secretes proteins
7. Contains bases of flagella
8. Responds to chemical substances in the
environment
 Destruction of the Membrane

1. Lysozyme: Enzyme that can lyze

peptidoglycan
Gram positive: destroyed
Gram negative: not completely destroyed

2. Osmotic Lysis: destruction due to osmosis

(movement of molecultes through a selectively
permeable membrane from an area of higher
concentrtion to an area of lower concentration)
 Destruction of the Membrane

3. Antimicrobial agents
damage the integrity of the plasma membrane;
cause leakage of intracellular contents and cell death
inhibit biosynthesis pf peptidoglycan cell-wall structure
Alcohols
Quaternary ammonium compounds
Antibiotics
Polymyxin
Penicillins
Cephalosporins
Vancomycins
Bacitracin
Movement of Materials Across Membranes
1. Passive processes

• Froma.high
Simple Diffusion
concentration to low
concentration
b. Facilitated Diffusion
c. Osmosis
• Without any expenditure of energy (ATP)
2. Active processes

• froma.low
Active transport
concentration to high concentration
(against
b. concentration gradient)
Group translocation
• with energy expenditure
Simple Diffusion

 The net (overall) movement of

molecules or ions from an area of
high concentration to an area of low
concentration.
 ions move until equilibrium reached
(evenly distributed)
 Small molecules: O2, CO2
Facilitated Diffusion

 Substances combine with

transporter proteins across
membranes from areas of high to
low concentration
 Transporter: permease

 High molecular weight substances:

glucose
Movement Across Membranes
Q: How does simple diffusion
differ from facilitated diffusion?

 The process differs in its use

of transporters.
 Osmosis (always
involves water): OSMOSIS
– Movement of water
across a selectively
permeable membrane
from an area of high
water concentration to
an area of lower
water.
 Osmotic pressure
– The pressure needed
to stop the movement
of water across the
membrane.
Osmosis
 Prokaryotes – Plasma Membrane as a Barrier
Osmosis

Diffusion of ________ across the plasma

membrane.

Environment surrounding cells may contain

amounts of dissolved substances
(solutes) that are…
equal to
less than
greater than
…those found within the cell.

Tonicity
__________: no net movement of
water between cell and
environment
__________: a higher concentration
of solute.
__________: a lower concentration of
solute.

Water will always move toward a Diagrams:

Osmosis - www.scienceaid.co.uk/biology/plants/osmosis.html
hypertonic environment!! Blood Cells: Mariana Ruiz
 Active Processes

 Low to high concentration (against gradient)

– cell must expend energy:
 Active transport of substances requires a
transporter protein and ATP; substances not
chemically altered
 Group translocation of substances requires a
transporter protein and PEP
(phospheonolpyruvic acid); substances are
chemically altered
Internal Structures

 Cytoplasm
 Ribosomes

 Granules

 Nucleoid/chromosome
 Actin Skeletone

 Endospore
 CTYOPLASM

 Internal Matrix = substance inside the

cell
 Thick fluid, aqueous, semitransparent,
elastic
 Contains: 80% water, Proteins,
Carbohydrates, Lipids, Inorganic ions,
Low molecular weight compounds
 Lacks features of eukaryotic
cytoplasm: cytoskeleton and
cytoplasmic streaming
 Nuclear Area (Nucleoid)

Learning Objective:
Identify functions of the
nuclear area, ribosomes, and
inclusions
 Nuclear Area (Nucleoid)

 Contains a single chromosome, a

single, long circular molecule of double
stranded DNA.
 The chromosome is attached to the
plasma membrane
 May occupy up to 20% of the
intracellular volume
 Plasmids

 Small, circular, double stranded DNA

molecules. Found in many bacterial cells in
addition to chromosomal DNA.
 Can be transferred from one bacterium to
another
 May contain from 5 to 100 genes that are
usually not essential for survival.
 Antibiotic resistance genes
 Tolerance to toxic metals
 Toxins
Closed Circular Chromosomes
Also Plasmids, which
are smaller, circular
pieces of DNA.

Plasmids usually
encode
expendable
functions, e.g.,
antibiotic
resistance.
 Ribosomes
 The site of protein synthesis (translation).
 Found in all eucaryotic and procaryotic cells
(free floating, not tied to endoplasmic
reticulum)
 Made up of protein and ribosomal RNA
(rRNA).
 Procaryotic ribosomes (70S) are smaller and
less dense than eucaryotic ribosomes (80S).
 Procaryotic ribosomes have two subunits:
 Small subunit: 30S
 Large subunit: 50S
 Several antibiotics work by inhibiting protein
synthesis by procaryotic ribosomes, without
affecting eucaryotic ribosomes.
 Ribosomes
The letter S refers to Svedberg units = relative rate of
sedimentation.
Because of differences in prokaryotic and eukaryotic ribosomes,
the microbe can be killed by antibiotics while eukaryotic host cell
is unaffected.
Selective Toxicity

 Some antibiotics are aimed at the 70 S

ribosomes of bacterial cells

 Streptomycin, Neomycin, Erythromycin

and Tetracycline work by inhibiting
protein synthesis by disrupting the 70
S ribosome
Ribosomes: Sites of Translation

On order of 10,000
per cell!
Q: What is the importance of the
difference between prokaryotic &
eukaryotic ribosomes with regard
to antibiotic therapy?

 Because of the differences in

prokaryotic & eukaryotic ribosomes,
the microbial cells can be killed by
the antibiotic while the eukaryotic
host cell remains unaffected.
 Inclusions
* Reserve deposits; NOT found in all cell types *
 Inclusions

1. Metachromatic Granules or VOLUTIN

 Contain inorganic phosphate that can be
used in the synthesis of ATP.
 Stain red with blue dyes.

 Found in both procaryotes & eucaryotes

(bacteria, algae, protozoa, and fungi)
 Characteristic of Corynebacterium
diphtheriae, causative agent of diphtheria.
Useful for identification purposes.
 Inclusions

2. Polysaccharide Granules:
 Contain glycogen and starch.
 Stain blue or reddish brown with iodine.

3. Lipid Inclusions:
 Contain lipids, detected with fat soluble dyes.

4. Sulfur Granules:
 Contain sulfur and sulfur containing compounds.
 “Sulfur bacteria” (Thiobacillus) obtain energy by
oxidizing sulfur and its compounds.
 Inclusions

5. Carboxysomes:
 Contain enzyme ribulose 1,5-diphosphate
carboxylase, necessary for carbon fixation
during photosynthesis.
 Found in nitrifying bacteria, cyanobacteria, and
thiobacilli

6. Gas Vacuoles:
 Hollow cavities found in many aquatic bacteria
 Contain individual gas vesicles, hollow cylinders
covered by protein
 Used to regulate buoyancy so cells can remain at
appropriate water depth
 Inclusions
7. Magnetosomes:
 Contain iron oxide (Fe O ), which acts like a
2 3
magnet.
 Formed by several aquatic gram-negative bacteria.
 Enable bacteria to respond to magnetic fields
(magnetotaxis)
 In Northern hemisphere swim towards North
Pole
 In Southern hemisphere swim towards South
Pole.
 Also swim downwards in water, towards
sediments where their food is abundant
 May help decompose hydrogen peroxide
 Used industrially to make magnetic audio tapes
Iron-oxide inclusions in some gram-negative
bacteria that act like magnets.
Inclusions: function
 Metachromatic granules (volutin): Phosphate
reserves
 Polysaccharide granules: Energy reserves
 Lipid inclusions: Energy reserves
 Sulfur granules: Energy reserves
 Carboxysomes: Ribulose 1,5-diphosphate
carboxylase for CO2 fixation
 Gas vacuoles: protein convered cylinders
 Magnetosomes : Iron oxide (destroys H2O2)
Recap: Nuclear Area (Nucleoid)

Identify functions of the

nuclear area, ribosomes,
and inclusions
Endospores

Learning Objective:
 Describe the functions of
endospores, sporulation, and
endospore germination.
 ENDOSPORES

 Specialized “resting” cells formed by certain

Gram-positive bacteria
 Genus Bacillus
 Genus Clostridium
 Highly durable dehydrated cells with thick
cell walls and additional layers
 Can survive extreme temperatures,
disinfectants, acids, bases, lack of water,
toxic chemicals, and radiation
 Endospores of some thermophilic bacteria
can survive 19 hours of boiling
 Concern in food and health industries
Endospores - formed under
periods of environmental stress
 Only found in Gram (+) Bacteria
 Bacillus
– Bacillus cereus
– Bacillus anthracis
 Clostridium
– Clostridium tetani
– Clostridium botulinum
– Clostridium perfringens
Process of Spore Formation
Sporulation
 May be part of normal life cycle or
triggered by adverse
environmental conditions.
 Endospores do not carry out
metabolic reactions, unlike normal
vegetative cells.
 Endospores can remain dormant
for thousands of years.
Sporulation
 Germination: Endospore returns to its
vegetative state. Usually occurs when
environmental conditions become more
favorable. Triggered by physical or
chemical damage to the spore coat.

Sporulation Germination
Vegetative Cell ----------> Endospore ------------>
(Metabolically active) (Not metabolically active)

Vegetative Cell
(Metabolically active)
 Form inside of
vegetative cells
(hence “endo”).
Endospores

Characteristic of
many soil bacteria,
e.g., Bacillus spp.
& Clostridium spp.

Highly resistant to
heat, U.V.,
desiccation, etc.
Bacillus subtilis
Recap
 Describe the functions of
endospores, sporulation, and
endospore germination.
Eukaryotic Cells
 Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
Cells
– Prokaryote comes from the Greek words for
prenucleus.
– Eukaryote comes from the Greek words for
true nucleus.
Important Differences Between Eucaryotic
and Procaryotic Cells
Procaryotes Eucaryotes
Cell size 0.2-2 um in diameter 10-100 um in diameter
Nucleus Absent Present
Membranous
Organelles Absent Present
Cell Wall Chemically complex When present, simple
Ribosomes Smaller (70S) Larger (80S) in cell
70S in organelles
DNA Single circular Multiple linear
chromosome chromosomes
(histones)
Cell Division Binary fission Mitosis
Cytoskeleton Absent Present
 Eukaryotic Flagella and Cilia
Prokaryotic
flagella rotate,
eukaryotic
flagella wave

Euglena (evolutionary
building block)
Flagella and
Cilia

 Flagella are few and long (motility), cilia are

numerous and short (motility and move substances
along cell surface)
 Microtubules
 Tubulin
 9 pairs + 2 arrangements
Learning objective: Compare and contrast prokaryotic and
Cell Wall and Glycocalyx
eukaryotic cell walls and glycocalyxes.

 Cell wall
– Plants, algae, some fungi contain cellulose
– Carbohydrates
 Cellulose, chitin (fungal), glucan & mannan
(yeast)
 Glycocalyx surround animal cells (strength,
attachment to other cells)
– Carbohydrates extending from animal plasma
membrane
– Bonded to proteins and lipids in membrane
 Plasma Membrane
Learning objective: Compare and contrast prokaryotic and
eukaryotic plasma membranes.
 Phospholipid bilayer in both p. and e. cells
 Peripheral proteins
 Integral proteins
 Transmembrane proteins
 Sterols
 Glycocalyx carbohydrates not found in p.
cells except Mycoplasma bacteria
 Plasma Membrane
 Selective permeability allows passage of some
molecules
 Simple diffusion
 Facilitative diffusion
 Osmosis
 Active transport
 Endocytosis
– Phagocytosis: Pseudopods extend and engulf
particles (solids)
– Pinocytosis: Membrane folds inward bringing in
fluid and dissolved substances (liquids)
 Eukaryotic Cell
 Cytoplasm: Substance inside plasma
membrane and outside nucleus
 Cytosol: Fluid portion of cytoplasm

 Cytoskeleton: Microfilaments,
intermediate filaments, microtubules
 Cytoplasmic streaming Movement of
cytoplasm throughout cells
Learning objectives:
Define organelle.
Describe the functions of the nucleus,
endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes,
Golgi complex, lysosomes, vacuoles,
mitochondria, chloroplasts,
peroxisomes, and centrosomes.
 Organelles
 Specialized membrane-bound structure in cytoplasm:
– Nucleus: Contains chromosomes (DNA)
– ER: Transport network, ribosomes
– Golgi complex: Membrane formation and protein
secretion
– Lysosome: Digestive enzymes
– Vacuole: Brings food into cells and provides support
– Mitochondrion: Cellular respiration (ATP)
– Chloroplast: Photosynthesis (70S ribosomes)
– Peroxisome: Oxidation of fatty acids; destroys H2O2
Eukaryotic Cell

 Not membrane-bound:
– Ribosome: Protein synthesis
(translation)
– Centrosome: Consists of protein
fibers and centrioles
– Centriole: Mitotic spindle formation
Eukaryotic Nucleus
Endoplasmic Reticulum

Rough ER contains
ribosomes – site of protein
translation

Smooth ER performs various

functions:
•Synthesizes phospholipids,
fats, steroids
•In liver: glucose release
and detoxify toxins
•Creates vesicles
Ribosomes

 80S
– Membrane-bound Attached to
ER
– Free In cytoplasm
 70S
– In chloroplasts and mitochondria
 Golgi Complex
Golgi complex modifies, sorts, and packages proteins received
from the ER; discharges proteins via exocytosis; replaces
portions of the plasma membrane; and forms lysosomes
(digestive enzymes).
Lysosomes (digestive enzymes)
Vacuoles (storage of toxins, food, water)
Mitochondrion
(furnace of the
cell)
Site of the Krebs
Cycle, which
produces the
energy currency
of the cell - ATP
 Chloroplast

Structure similar to mitochondria – the

reverse side of respiration:
C6H12O6 + O2 = H2O + CO2 + ATP

Photosynthesis:
H2O + CO2 + sun = C6H12O6 + O2
Learning objective:
Discuss evidence that supports
Endosymbiotic
the endosymbiotic theory of Theory
eukaryotic evolution.

•Mitochondria and
chloroplasts resemble
bacteria in size and shape
as do their ribosomes
•These organelles contain
circular DNA like
prokaryotes and can
reproduce apart from their
host cell
Important Point: