CONTENTS/LESSON OUTCOME

DEFINITIONS
STRUCTURE & TYPE OF TREES
SEASONING OF TIMBER
USES OF TIMBER
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
DEFECTS DUE TO NATURAL FORCES
DEFECTS DUE TO FUNGI
DEFECTS DUE INSECTS
DEFECTS DUE TO CONVERSION
DEFECTS DUE TO SEASONING
PRESERVATION OF TIMBER
 TIMBER:

The wood which is

suitable or fit for
engineering construction
or engineering purpose is
called timber.
 WOOD:
The organic matter
obtained from trees is
called wood.
 LUMBER:
The sawed wood
prepared for use as
Building materials (in the
form of boards, planks
etc is called lumber.
STRUCTURE OF A TREE
CROSS SECTION OF A TIMBER
 TYPES OF TREES:
Trees are classified into two
groups depending upon growth
pattern.
(1) Endogenous trees:
The trees which grow inwards in
longitudinal fibrous mass are
called endogenous trees.
(2) Exogenous tress :
The trees which grow in out wards
across horizontal section of stem are
called exogenous trees.
These trees are only fit for
engineering construction.
Exogenous trees are again
subdivided in to two types.
8
• Conifers or Evergreen:
– They give soft wood.
– They have pointed leaves.
Examples:
• Deodar
• Pine
• Chir
• Kail,etc

9
• Deciduous:
–These have hard wood.
–These have broad leaves.
Examples:
•Teak
•Melina-good for facial boards
•Omo - good for door frames(yoruba)
•Obeche – good for furniture (edo)
•African Baobab, etc. 10
 SEASONING OF TIMBER:
As fresh timber which is obtained from
trees contains about 30 to 40 % sap or
moisture. This sap is very harmful for the
life of a timber. Therefore, it is necessary to
remove that sap by applying some special
methods. All those methods which are used
for removing the sap from timber are
collectively termed as seasoning of timber.
 Advantages of seasoned timber:
• It has reduced weight,
• It is strong and durable,
• It has resistance to decay or rot,
• It takes high polish,
• It is easier to work,
• Its life is more.
 Types of Timber Seasoning:
The main types of timber seasoning are as
under.
(1)Natural Seasoning,
(2)Artificial Seasoning,
(a) Kiln Seasoning,
(b) Chemical Seasoning,
(c) Electric Seasoning,
(3) Water Seasoning,
 Natural Seasoning:
In the air seasoning or natural seasoning or
natural drying, seasoning of timber, timber is
dried by direct action of air, wind and sun. In
this method, the timber logs are arranged one
over the other, keeping some space or distance
between them for air circulation of fresh air.
Generally this type of seasoning requires few
months to over a year, this is very slow process.
15
 ARTIFICIAL SEASONING

(a) Kiln Seasoning,

(b) Chemical Seasoning,
(c) Electric Seasoning,
(a) Kiln Seasoning:
In kiln seasoning timber is placed in a
chamber with some special heating
arrangement. In this process one thing
should be kept in mind that heating
system should be under control, other
wise timber will be crack or wrap. The
time required for this seasoning is 3 to
12 days. This is quick process. 17
Kiln Seasoning

18
(b) Chemical Seasoning:
In chemical seasoning carbon dioxide,
ammonium carbonate or urea are used
as agents for seasoning, those are
applied in dry state, the inner surface of
timber dries first than outer side.
This ensures uniform seasoning. The
time required for this seasoning is 30 to
40 days. 19
(c) Electric Seasoning:

In this method electric

current is passed through
the timber logs. The time
required for this seasoning
is 05 to 08 hours.
20
Electric Seasoning

Developed by:G.S.Solangi
21
(3) Water Seasoning:
In water seasoning, timber logs are
kept immersed whole in the flowing
water. The sap present in timber is
washed away. After that logs are taken
out from water and are kept in open
air, so water present in timber would
be dried by air. The time required for
this type of seasoning is 2 to 4 weeks.
22
USES OF TIMEBR:
Timber is used in:
1.Building construction,
2.Construction of house posts,
3.Construction of beams,
4.Construction of rafters,
5.Construction of bridges,
6.Construction of piles, poles and
Prepared by:G.S.Solangi

railway sleepers,
7. For making furniture,
8. Crates-For light packing cases,
9. For high packing cases (for machinery
and similar stores),
10.For manufacturing of agricultural
implements,
11.For making toys, etc,
12.For manufacturing of veneers and ply
woods. 24
•VENEER:
Thin sheet of uniform thickness of
wood is called veneer.
•PLYWOOD:
Veneers used for making plywood
are known as plies and ply wood is
made by gluing together plies in
odd numbers. Gluing is done under
pressure. 25
 DEFECTS OF TIMBER

SUBMITTED BY-
JAYVANT CHOUDHARY
C.E , 4TH SEM
 DEFINE DEFECTS IN TIMBER
• A DEFECT IS AN IRREGULARITY OR
ABNORMALITY OCCURING IN OR ON WOOD
WHICH IS RESPONSIBLE FOR ITS
1. STRENGTH REDUCTION
2. LOWERING OF DURABLITY
3. LOWERING OF UTILITY
4. POOR APPERANCE
5. DECAY
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF DEFECTS

(CAUSED DUE TO)

NATURAL FORCES INSECTS SEASONING

FUNGI CONVERSION
 CHEMICAL STAIN

KNOTS

SHAKES

DEFECTS DUE
TO NATURAL TWISTED FIBRES

FORCES
RIND GALLS

UPSETS

BURLS
CHEMICAL STAIN:-THE WOOD IS
SOMETIMES DISCOLOURED BY THE
CHEMICAL ACTION CAUSED WITH
IT BY SOME EXTERNAL AGENCY.THIS
IS KNOWN AS CHEMICAL STAIN.
RIND GALLS:-THE RIND MEANS BARK AND
GALL INDICATES ABNORMAL
GROWTH.HENCE PECULIAR CURVED
SWELLING FOUND ON THE BODY OF TREE
ARE KNOWN AS RIND GALL.THEY DEVELOP
AT POINTS FROM WHERE BRANCHES ARE
IMPROPERLY CUT OFF OR REMOVED.THEY
ARE RARELY FOUND IN A TREE AND THE
TIMBER IN THIS PART IS VERY WEAK AND
NOT DURABLE.
COARSE GRAIN:-IF THE TREE GROWS RAPIDLY,THE ANNUAL
RINGS ARE WIDENED.IT IS KNOWN AS THE COARSED
GRAIN TIMBER AND SUCH TIMBER POSSESSES LESS
STRENGTH
KNOTS:-THESE ARE THE BASES OF
BRANCHES OR LIMBS WHICH ARE
BROKEN OR CUT OFF FROM THE TREE.THE
PORTION FROM WHICH THE BRANCH IS
REMOVED RECIEVES NOURISHMENT
FROM THE STEM FOR A PRETTY LONG
TIME AND IT ULTIMATELY RESULTS IN
FORMATION OF DARK HARD RINGS
WHICH ARE KNOWN AS KNOTS.AS
CONTINUITY OF WOOD FIBRES ARE
BROKEN BY KNOTS,THEY FORM A SOURCE
OF WEAKNESS
 CLASSIFICATION ON SIZE BASIS
PIN KNOT:-DIAMETRE UPTO 6.50MM
SMALL KNOT:-DIAMETRE UPTO 6.5 AND 20MM
MEDIUM KNOT:-DIAMETER BETWEEN 20 AND 40MM
LARGE KNOT:-DIAMETER GREATER THAN 40MM
CLASSIFICATION ON FORM AND QUALITY BASIS
DEAD KNOT:-KNOT WHICH IS SEPERATED FROM BODY OF WOOD.IT IS NOT
SAFE TO USE WOOD WITH SUCH A KNOT FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES.
DECAYED KNOT:-POPULARLY KNOWN AS UNSOUND KNOTAND FORM BY
ACTION OF FUNGI ON WOOD.
LIVE KNOT:-IT IS THOROUGHLY FIXED IN WOOD AND CANNOT SEPERATED OUT
FROM BODY OF WOOD.IT IS FREE FROM CRACKS AND DECAY.WOOD
CONTAINING THIS KNOT CAN BE USED FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES.
LOOSE KNOT:-IT IS PRELIMINARY STAGE OF DEAD KNOT.
ROUND KNOT:-THE CROSS-SECTION OF THIS TYPE OF KNOT IS EITHER ROUND
OR OVAL
TIGHT KNOT:-IT IS PRELIMINARY STAGE OF LIVE KNOT.THE FIBRES OF KNOT ARE
FIRMLY HELD IN SORROUNDING WOOD.
DEAD WOOD:-THE TIMBER WHICH IS OBTAINED
FROMDEAD STANDING TREES CONTAINS DEAD
WOOD.IT IS INDICATED BY LIGHT WEIGHT AND
REDDISH COLOUR.

DRUXINESS:-THIS DEFECT IS INDICATED BY WHITE DECAYED SPOTS

WHICH ARE CONCEALED BY HEALTHY WOOD THEY ARE PROBABLY
FORMED BY ACCESS OF FUNGI.

SHAKES:-THESE ARE LONGITUDINAL

SEPERATIONS IN WOOD BETWEEN THE
ANNUAL RINGS.THESE ARE CRACKS WHICH
PARTLY OR COMPLETELY SEPARATE FIBRES OF
WOOD.THE SEPERATIONS MAKE THE WOOD
UNDESIRABLE WHEN APPERANCE IS
IMPORTENT
 TYPES OF SHAKES
STAR SHAKES:-THESE ARE CRACKS WHICH
EXTEND FROM BARK TOWARDS THE SAP
WOOD.THESE ARE USUALLY CONFINED UPTO
THE PLANE OF SAP WOOD.THESE ARE WIDER
ON OUTSIDE ENDS AND NARROWER ON
INSIDE ENDS.THEY ARE USUALLYFORMED DUE
TO EXTREME HEAT OR SEVERE FROST DURING
THE GROWTH OF TREE

CUP SHAKES:-IT APPEARS AS CURVED SPLIT

WHICH PARTLY OR WHOLLY SEPERATES
ANNUAL RINGS FROM ONE ANOTHER.IT IS
CAUSED DUE TO EXCESSIVE FROST ACTION ON
SAP PRESENT IN THE TREE ESPECIALLY WHEN
THE TREE IS YOUNG
HEART SHAKES:-THESE CRACKS OCCUR IN CENTRE
OF CROSS-SECTION OF TREE AND THEY EXTEND
FROM PITH TO SAP WOOD IN DIRECTION OF
MEDULLARY RAYS.THESE CRACKS OCCUR DUE TO
SHRINKAGE OF INTERIOR PART OF TREE WHICH IS
APPROACHING MATURITY.THE HEART SHAKE
DIVIDE THE TREE CROSS-SECTION INTO TWO OR
FOUR PARTS.

RING SHAKES:-WHEN CUP SHAKES COVER

THE ENTIRE ,THEY ARE KNOWN AS RING
SHAKES
TWISTED FIBRES:-THESE ARE KNOWN AS WANDERING
HEARTS AND CAUSED BY TWISTING OF YOUNG TREES BY
FAST BLOWING WIND.THE TIMBERS WITH TWISTED
FIBRES IS UNSUITABLE FOR SAWING

UPSETS:-THESE INDICATE WOOD FIBRES WHICH

ARE INJURED BY CRUSHING OR COMPRESSION.THE
UPSETS ARE MAINLY DUE TO IMPROPER FELLING
OF TREE AND EXPOSURE OF TREE IN ITS YOUNG
AGE TO FAST BLOWING WIND

BURLS:-THEY ARE PARTICULARLY FORMED WHEN A

TREE RECIEVES SHOCK OR INJURY IN ITS YOUNG
AGE.DUE TO ITS INJURY,THE GROWTH OF TREE IS
COMPLETELY UPSET AND IRREGULAR PROJECTIONS
APPEAR ON THE BODY OF TIMBER
 DEFECTS DUE TO FUNGI

BLUE STAIN BROWN ROT DRY ROT HEART ROT WET ROT WHITE ROT
BLUE STAIN :-THE SAP OF WOOD IS STAINED TO
BLUISH COLOUR BY THE ACTION OF CERTAIN TYPE
OF FUNGI

BROWN ROT :-THE TERM ROT IS USED TO

INDICATE DECAY OR DISEASE OF TIMBER,THE
FUNGI OF CERTAIN TYPE REMOVES CELLULOSE
COMPOUNDS FROM WOOD AND HENCE WOOD
ASSUMES THE BROWN COLOUR

WHITE ROT:-IT IS JUST OPPOSITE OF BROWN

ROT.IN THIS CERTAIN TYPE OF FUNGI ATTACK
LIGNIN OF WOOD AND WOOD ASSUMES THE
APPEARANCE OF A WHITE MASS CONSISTING
OF CELLULOSE COMPOUNDS
 HEART ROT:-THIS IS FORMED WHEN BRANCH HAS
COME OUT OF THE TREE.IN SUCH CASE,THE HEART
WOOD IS EXPOSED TO ATTACK OF ATMOSPHERIC
AGENTS.ULTIMATELY THE TREE BECOMES WEAK
AND IT GIVES HOLLOW SOUND WHEN STRUK WITH
HAMMER
WET ROT:-SOME KIND OF FUNGI CAUSEDCHEMICAL
DECOMPOSITION OF WOOD OF TIMBER AND IN
DOING SO CONVERT TIMBER INTO GREYISH BROWN
POWDER.IT IS KNOWN AS WET ROT. SOME
IMPORTANT POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED ABOUT
WET ROT ARE.
THE ALTERNATE WET AND DRY CONDITIONS FAVOURS THE DEVELOPMENT
OF WET ROT
IF UNSEASONED OR IMPROPERLY SEASONED TIMBER ARE EXPOSED TO RAIN
AND WIND,THEY BECOME EASILY LIABLE FOR ATTACK OF WET ROT.
TO PREVENT WET ROT,THE WELL SEASONED TIMBER SHOULD BE USED FOR
EXTERIOR WORK OR FOR UNDERGROUND WORK AND IT SHOULD BE COVERED
BY TAR OR PAINT FOR PROTECTION AGAINST MOISTURE
DRY ROT :- SOME TYPES OF FUNGI FEED ON
WOODS AND DURING FEEDING THEY ATTACK ON
WOOD AND CONVERT IT INTO DRY POWDER
FORM.THIS IS KNOWN AS DRY ROT.THE
FOLLOWING FACTS TO BE NOTED.

DRY ROT OCCURS AT THE PLACES WHERE THERE IS NO FREE CIRCULATION OF AIR
SUCH AS IMPROPERLY VENTILATED BASEMENTS,ROOMS ETC AND DAMPED SITUATION
LIKE KITCHEN TOILET ETC.
THE UNSESONED SAP WOOD ARE EASILY ATTACKED BY DRY ROT.
THE FAVOURABLE CONDITIONS FOR GROWTH OF FUNGUS CAUSING DRY ROT ARE
ABSENCE OF SUNLIGHT,DAMPNESS,PRESENCE OF SAP,STAGNANT AIR AND WARMTH.
IT IS ALSO CAUSED BY CHARRING,PAINTING AND TARRING THE UNSEASONED
TIMBER.
THE DRY ROT MAY BE PREVENTED BY USING WELL SEASONED TIMBER FREE FROM
SAP.
WHEN A PART OF TREE IS SERIOUSLY AFFECTED BY DRY ROT,THE DAMAGED PORTION
MAY BE COMPLETELY REMOVED AND REMAINING UNAFFECTED PORTION SHOULD BE
PAINTED WITH A SOLUTION OF COPPER SULPHATE.
 DEFECTS DUE TO INSECTS

(CAUSED BY)

BEETLES MARINE BOARERS TERMITES

 DEFECTS DUE TO INSECTS
DEFECTS CAUSED BY BEETLES

Flour like powder

 THEY FORM PIN HOLES OF SIZE ABOUT 2MM DIA IN WOOD

 TUNNEL FORMATION IS DONE IN SAP WOOD BY LARVAE OF
BEETLE
 CONVERSION OF TIMBER INTO FLOUR LIKE POWDER
 THEY DO NOT DISTURB OUTER SHELL OR COVER
 DEFECTS DUE TO MARINE BOARERS

BOARS

THEY ARE FOUND IN SALTY WATER

THEY FORM TUNNELS OR BORES TO TAKE SHELTERS
DIAMETER AND LENGTH OF HOLES ARE AS HIGH AS 25MM AND 60
MM RESPECTIVELY
AFFECTED WOOD LOOSES ITS COLOUR AND STRENGTH
NO TIMBER IS COMPLETELY IMMUNE FROM ATTACK OF MARINE
BOARERS
 DEFECTS CAUSED BY TERMITES

LIVES IN COLONY AND VERY FAST IN EATING AWAY THE WOOD

FROM CORE OF CROSS-SECTION.
MAKES TUNNELS IN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS AND USUALLY
NOT DISTURB THE OUTER SHELL OR COVER.
THE TIMBER PIECE ATTACKED BY TERMITES MAY LOOK SOUND
UNTILL IT COMPLETELY FAILS
FEW GOOD TIMBERS LIKE TEAK,SAL,ETC CAN RESIST THE
ACTION OF TERMITES
 DEFECTS DUE TO CONVERSION

CHIP MARK DIAGONAL GRAIN TORN GRAIN WANE

 DEFECTS DUE TO CONVERSION
CHIP MARK:-THIS DEFECT IS
INDICATED BY MARK OR SIGNS
PLACED ON FINISHED SURFACE
OF TIMBER.THEY MAY BE
FORMED BY PLANING MACHINE

WANE:-THIS DEFECT IS
DENOTED BY PRESENCE
OF ORIGINAL ROUNDED
SURFACE ON
MANUFACTURED PART OF
TIMBER
DIAGONAL GRAIN:-THE DEFECT IS
FORMED DUE TO IMPROPER
SAWING SAWING OF TIMBER.IT IS
INDICATED BY DIAGONAL MARKS
ON STRAIGHT GRAINED SURFACE
OF TIMBER

TORN GRAIN:-DEFECT CAUSED

WHEN A SMALL DEPRESSION
IS FORMED ON A FINISHED
SURFACE OF TIMBER BY
FALLING A TIMBER OR SO

TORN GRAIN
 DEFECTS DUE TO SEASONING

TWIST CUP BOW SPRING SPLIT HONEY COMBING

 DEFECTS DUE TO SEASONING

BOW:-THIS DEFECT IS
INDICATED BY CURVATURE
FORMED IN DIRECTION OF
LENGTH OF TIMBER

CUP:-THIS DEFECT IS
INDICATED BY CURVATURE
FORMED IN TRANSVERSE
DIRECTION OF TIMBER
 CHECK:-A CRACK
WHICH SEPERATES
FIBRES OF WOOD.IT
DOES NOT EXTEND
FROM ONE END TO
THE OTHER

SPLIT
SPLIT:-WHEN CHECK
CHECK EXTENDS FROM ONE END
TO OTHER,IT IS KNOWN AS
A SPLIT
 TWIST:-WHEN A PIECE OF
TIMBER HAS SPIRALLY
DISTORTED ALONG ITS
LENGTH,IT IS KNOWN AS A
TWIST

HONEY-COMBING:-DUE TO
STRESS DEVOLOPED DURING
DRYING,VARIOUS RADIAL AND
CIRCULAR CRACKS DEVELOP IN
THE INTERIOR PORTION OF
TIMBER,WHICH RESEMBLES
WITH HONEY-COMB TEXTURE HONEY-COMB STRUCTURE
 TIMBER PRESERVATIVES:

There are two main classes

of timber preservatives.
(1) Oily substances insoluble
in water
(2) Water soluble salts
 Oily substances insoluble
in water:

Coal tar oil is the best known and

widely used preservative material of
this class. It is obtained during the
destructive distillation of bituminous
coal. It is available in many grades
and types. It has high degree of
penetration. It has highly toxic effect
to wood destroying fungi.
 Water soluble salts:

Zinc chloride is the most

extensively used
preservative of this type.
It is clean and odourless.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
BUILDING MATERIALS-S.K.DUGGAL
BUILDING MATERIALS-RANGWALA
BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING-DR.B.C.PUNMIA
BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING-SATHEESH GOPI
GOOGLE- TIMBER BUILDING MATERIAL
GOOGLE-DEFECTS OF TIMBER
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