LATERITE GEOLOGY

AND
MINERALISATION PROCESSES

Vale Inco Exploration

Training presentation for PTI, May 9-11 2008

 OUTLINE OF THE PRESENTATION

1. Overview of Nickel and its deposits

2. What are nickel laterites
3. Description of a laterite profile
4. Chemical weathering of ultramafic rocks
5. Factors that influence laterite formation
6. Role of various elements during laterisation
7. Minerals associated with ultramafics and laterites
8. Physical and chemical properties of nickel laterites
relevant to their exploitation
9. Processing of Nickel Laterites
 1.
OVERVIEW OF NICKEL
AND ITS DEPOSITS

Vale Inco Exploration

 Nickel and its usage

• Nickel was first discovered in 1751

• Derived from German “kupfernickel”  false copper
• Major uses of nickel:
 Stainless steel 65%
 Specialty alloys 12%
 Plating 8%
 Other uses 15%
• Addition of nickel imparts corrosion resistance, and
ability to withstand high temperatures and pressures
• Primary nickel supply comes from newly mined ores
• Secondary nickel supply comes from recycling scrap
 Major Nickel Producers of the World
(per Eramet 2005 Reference Document)

• Major Nickel producing companies:

1. Norilsk 243,000 t (19%)
2. CVRD Inco 221,000 t (17%)
3. BHP-Billiton 146,000 t (11%)
4. Falconbridge 114,000 t (9%) [Now Exstrata]
5. Jinchuan 93,000 t (7%)
6. Eramet 59,000 t (5%)
7. Sumitomo 51,000 t (4%)
• Major Nickel producing countries:
1. Russia (Norilsk Nickel group)
2. Canada (CVRD Inco, Falconbridge, Sheritt)
3. Australia (BHP-B, Minara, Cawse, LionOre)
 Types of Nickel Deposits

• Sulphide nickel deposits

 Nickel as nickel sulphide  pentlandite, millerite

 Nickel ores processed through milling and smelting

• Laterite nickel deposits

 Oxide Ni deposits: Ni as hydroxide in the ferruginous zone
 Clay silicate deposits: Ni as clay silicate
 Hydrous silicate deposits: Ni as hydrous-silicate in
saprolite

 Nickel ores processed through pyro-metallurgy (smelting)

or hydro-metallurgy (leaching)
WORLD’S LAND-BASED Ni RESOURCES
Excluding sea-based manganese nodules

Mt % Contained Relative
Ore Ni Nickel %
Mt
SULPHIDES 10,594 0.58 62 31%

LATERITES 10,382 1.32 140 69%

TOTAL 20,976 0.96 202 100%

WORLD Ni PRODUCTION & RESOURCES

PRIMARY Ni PRODUCTION WORLD Ni RESOURCES

60% 70%

SULPHIDE LATERITE

LATERITE SULPHIDE
40%

40% 30%
 World Nickel Laterite Deposits

Albania
Greece
Cuba Dominican India Burma
Republic Ivory Coast Philippines
Guatemala
Columbia VenezuelaBurundi Ethiopia Indonesia
Brazil Zimbabwe PNG
Madagascar New
Caledonia
Australia
Producing Countries
Non Producing Countries
LATERITE vs. SULPHIDE DEPOSITS

CUBA
PHILIPPINES

INDONESIA

NEW CALEDONIA

AUSTRALIA

LATERITES SULPHIDES
 World Nickel Laterite Resources
(Distribution by Contained Nickel)

Mt Resource % Ni Mt Ni %
Caribbean 2785 1.26 35.0 25
New Caledonia 1890 1.52 28.7 20
Indonesia 1401 1.63 22.8 16
Philippines 1162 1.30 15.1 11
Australia 1144 0.95 10.9 8
Africa 800 1.33 10.7 8
C. & S. America 661 1.60 10.6 8
Other 539 1.08 5.8 4

Total 10382 1.34 140 100

 World Nickel Laterite Resources
(Distribution by Contained Nickel)

C. & S.
America Other
4% Caribbean
Africa 8% 25%
8%
Australia
8%

Philippines
New
11%
Indonesia Caledonia
16% 20%
WORLD LATERITES – Grade/Tonnage Plot
LIM Producing (Yr 2000) LIM Likely to produce (by 2010) LIM Non-producing
SAP Producing (Yr 2000) SAP Likely to produce (by 2010) SAP Non-producing
2.
WHAT ARE NICKEL LATERITES

Vale Inco Exploration

 LATERITE PROFILE
On Unserpentinised Peridotite, Sorowako

Red Laterite

Yellow Laterite

Saprolite zone

Bedrock pinnacle
 DEFINITION OF LATERITES

• Buchanan Hamilton introduced the term for the “brick

stones” used by people in South India that hardened on
exposure to the sun (Latin word “later” means brick)

• Current use of the term “laterite” does not require this

hardening characteristic

• Nickel laterites are:

 Residual soils
 Rich in sesquioxides of iron with some nickel enrichment
 Have developed over mafic/ultramafic rocks
 Through processes of chemical weathering and supergene
enrichment
 Under tropical climatic conditions
 Ni Laterites are “Soils”

• A soil is a naturally occurring body made up of layers

which differ from the parent material in their physical,
chemical, mineralogical, biological and textural
characteristics.

• Soils are formed through several processes that include:

 Addition through transportation
 Removal at the top of the profile through erosion
 Removal from the soil profile through leaching
 Migration of elements through the soil profile (through
leaching)
 GREAT SOIL GROUPS OF THE WORLD
Dry Wet
Cold TUNDRA Cold
TUNDRA
Degraded
Degraded
Chernozem
Chermozem PODZOL

Chemozem
Brown PODZOL

Chestnut
Gray Desert &

Gray
Sierozem

Brown
Desert
TEMPERATURE

Chestnut Brown Podzolic

and Sierozem Brown Podzolic
Brunizem
Brunizem
Gray-Brown
Gray-Brown Podzolic

Podzolic
Reddish Brown

Red-Yellow
Red-Yellow Podzolic

Podzolic
Chestnut
Reddish
Redd

Bro
wn
ish

Reddish
Chestnut
Reddish
Reddish
Red
Red Desert Prairie
Prairie Yellow-brown
Desert Yellowish brown Latosolic
Latsolic
Reddish-brown
Reddish brown Latosolic
Latsolic
Hot LATERITE
LATERITE
Hot
Dry Wet
HUMIDITY / RAINFALL
 Importance of Laterites

• In stratigraphy, laterites represent unconformities (break

in stratigraphic sequence)

• Laterites make poor soils for agriculture

• Laterites are source of metals:

 Ni, Co, Cr, Fe (from laterites derived from ultramafic rocks)
 Al (from laterites derived from aluminous rocks)
 3.
DESCRIPTION OF
LATERITE PROFILE

Vale Inco Exploration

 P.T. INCO

Development of weathering crust on

a peridotite boulder (Sorowako)
 LATERITE PROFILE
On Unserpentinised Peridotite, Sorowako

Red Laterite

Yellow Laterite

Saprolite zone

Bedrock pinnacle
STRATIFICATION IN LATERITE PROFILE

Red Laterite

Ferruginous
Hematite zone

Zone
Yellow Laterite Limonite zone

Intermediate zone

Saprolite zone Zone of altered bedrock

(clayey matrix + boulders)

Bedrock Fresh bedrock

 BEDROCK ZONE

• Fresh bedrock

• Joints and fractures opening up as

hydrostatic pressure is removed

Red Laterite • Percolating rain water circulating along

joint and fracture surfaces

Yellow Laterite • Signs of incipient weathering

• Original rock composition and texture

fully preserved
Saprolite zone

Bedrock
Unserpentinised Peridotite - Sorowako
 SAPROLITE ZONE

• Rock fragments + saprolised boulders +

precipitated silica + garnierite
• Chemical weathering proceeding actively
along joints and fractures
Red Laterite • Silica and magnesia being leached out
• Rock porosity increasing with time

Yellow Laterite • Bulk density decreasing with time

• Zone still not collapsed
• Original rock texture still preserved

Saprolite zone • Upper part more ferruginous than lower

part
• High SiO2 and MgO contents

Bedrock • Low Fe content

• Zone of supergene Ni enrichment
Hard saprolite with garnierite - Sorowako
Soft saprolite profile – West Block
West block laterite profile
 INTERMEDIATE ZONE

• Soft smectite clays + silica

• Chemical weathering (silica & magnesia
leaching) extremely advanced
• Rock porosity at its maximum
Red Laterite • Bulk density at its lowest
• Zone is ready to collapse
Yellow Laterite • Moisture content at its highest
• Original rock texture barely discernible
• Upper part more ferruginous than lower
Saprolite zone part
• Often the preferred location for Mn and
Co enrichment
Bedrock
 LIMONITE ZONE

• Zone rich in hydrated Fe oxides +

• Chemical weathering near complete
• Silica and magnesia fully leached out

Red Laterite
• Residual concentrations of other
elements at near maximum

Yellow Laterite
• Rock porosity decreasing with time
• Bulk density increasing with time
• Zone is collapsed

Saprolite zone • Original rock texture obliterated

Bedrock
 HEMATITE ZONE

• Zone rich in hematite and less hydrated

Fe oxides (goethite)
• Chemical weathering complete
• Silica and magnesia fully leached out
Red Laterite
• Residual concentrations of other
elements at maximum
Yellow Laterite
• Rock porosity decreasing with time
• Bulk density increasing with time

Saprolite zone • Zone is completely collapsed

• Original rock texture obliterated
• Further changes include formation of
Bedrock duricrust (ferricrete or silcrete)
SOROWAKO LATERITE PROFILE

WEST BLOCK EAST BLOCK

UNSERPENTINISED SERPENTINISED
DEPTH (m)
0 Iron cap

Limonite
5 Overburden

Limonite ore
10

Saprolite Ore
15

20 Bedrock
 NICKEL LATERITE PROFILES

SILICATE CLAY OXIDE

(eg New Caledonia) (eg Murrin Murrin) (eg Moa Bay)
DEPTH (m)
Iron cap
0 Cuirasse Colluvium
Limonite
Red Ferruginous overburden
limonite zone

Yellow Limonite
limonite Smectite
zone

Earthy Saprolite
ore
20

Ore with
boulders Saprolite
(Serpentine,
chlorite, Bedrock
Rocky
smectite)
ore

Bedrock
40 Bedrock
 Range of Laterite Profiles
From dry to wet tropical climates

Dryer Climate Humid Climate Humid Climate

(Western Australia) (Goro Plateau) (Indonesia hills)

WA
Laterite
Profile
Ferricrete
Limonite
Nontronite
Saprolite
Altered Peridotite

%Ni %Co %Mg %Fe %Ni %Co %Mg %Fe %Ni %Co %Mg %Fe
Ferricrete .2 -.5 .02 .6 35+ .2 -.5 .02 .6 35+ .2 -.5 .02 .6 35+
Limonite .6-1.4 .1-.2 1-2 45 1.2-1.7 .1-.2 1-2 45 1.2-17 .1-.2 1 -4 45
Nontronite 1.2 .08 3.5 18
Saprolite .4 .02 12.0 9 1.5 -3 .05-.1 10-20 10-25 1.5-3 .05-.1 10-30 10-20
 Bulong, Australia
Laterite Mineralogy
100 Microlcline
Magnetite
90 Albite
Nontronite Muscovite
80 Hematite Goethite Gypsum
70 Orth?
Magnetite
60
Weight %

Hematite
50 Goethite
Qz
40 Kaolinite
Antigorite
30 Vermiculite

20 Kaolinite Talc
Nontronite
10 Chlorite
Antigorite
0
1

3
5

7
9

11
13

15

17

21
23

25

27
29

31
19

Depth To (m)
 Ore zone definition

BEDROCK
NITE
O
LIM
SAPROLITE
Supergene
Supergene Nickel
Cobalt enrichment
enrichment
 4.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF ULTRAMAFIC
ROCKS
(Mineralising Process)

Vale Inco Exploration

 ULTRAMAFIC ROCKS

TERMINOLOGY
• Rich in mafic (ferro-magnesian) minerals
• Generally contain less than 45% SiO2 (except pyroxenite)
• Colour indices of more than 70
• Generally lack any feldspar
• No exact counterpart among lavas (extrusive rocks)
• The density of ultramafic magma is too high to rise through the
sialic portion of the crust

FORMATION
• Crystal settling (by gravity) in a magma chamber (layered
intrusions)
• Intrusion of hot, semi-solid, crystalline mass (dykes, lenses, stocks)
• Through obduction of oceanic crust upon continental landmass in
orogenic belts
 CLASSIFICATION OF ULTRAMAFICS
DUNITE
• Monomineralic rock composed entirely of olivine. Originally seen at Dun
Mountain in New Zealand

PYROXENITE
• Monomineralic rock composed entirely of pyroxene
 Orthopyroxenites: Bronzitites
 Clinopyroxenites: Diopsidites; diallagites

HORNBLENDITES
• Monomineralic rocks composed entirely of hornblende
SERPENTINITE
• Monomineralic rock composed entirely of serpentine
PERIDOTITE
• Ultramafic rocks containing olivine and other mafic minerals
• Pyroxene peridotite / Hornblende peridotite / Mica peridotite
CLASSIFICATION OF ULTRAMAFICS-1

Classification OLIVINE
In terms of Dunite
Oliv.-Pyrox.-Hnde 90% OL.

Peridotites
Harzburgite
Lherzolite
Wehrlite
40% OL.

Pyroxenites
Orthopyroxenite Hornblendites
Websterite
Clinopyroxenite

PYROXENE HORNBLENDE
 CLASSIFICATION OF ULTRAMAFICS

Classification OLIVINE
In terms of
Olivine-Opx-Cpx Dunite

Harzburgite Wehrlite

Lherzolite
OL+OPX+CP
40% OL
Olivine
Olivine
Olivine Clinopyroxenite
Orthopyroxenite
Websterites
Ortho- OL+OPX+CP Clino-
Pyroxenite Pyroxenite
Websterites
ORTHO- CLINO-
PYROXENE PYROXENE
Peridotite samples from Petea, Indonesia

41 samples
Petrography by
J. Babineau
Dunite

Harzburgite Wehrlite
Lherzolite
WORLD’S SERPENTINE BELTS
 Ni IN ULTRAMAFIC ROCKS

• Ni in ultramafic rocks is primarily in mafic minerals

 High in olivines (0.2 – 0.3% Ni)
 Low in orthopyroxenes (0.05 – 0.1% Ni)
 Very low in clinopyroxenes (< 0.05% Ni)
• Thus, decrease in the olivine content of the ultramafic
reduces the overall nickel content of the rock:
 Highest Ni grades in dunites
 Lower Ni grades in peridotites
 Lowest Ni grades in pyroxenites
• Ni in mafic minerals is largely as a replacement of Mg
• Ni in mafic minerals falls with the order of crystallisation
• Some Ni may exist as replacement of the larger Fe
atoms
• Primary chromite and magnetite may contain minor Ni
MAFIC MINERAL STRUCTURE

Silicon Olivine
Tetrahedron
SiO4
Pyroxene

Amphiboles

Micas
Sheet silicates
 IONIC REPLACEMENT

• Ionic radius is the radius of an ion that is reported in

terms of angstrom units (1°A = 10-7 mm)

Si Co Fe3 Mg Ni Fe2
0.42 O
0.62 0.64 0.66 0.69 0.74 S
1.40
1.84

Oxygen
Silica
Tetrahedron
Silicon
 IONIC REPLACEMENT

Certain Cations can replace each

other to form isomorphous series.
Following are the conditions:

• Cations should have about

the same ionic radii

Same size cations

• The minerals formed should
have the same crystal structure

• The difference in charge is

no more than one valency

• Suitable contact is available

among the various cations
 Forsterite-Fayalite Solid Solution

70 Fe2SiO4
(Fayalite)
60

50 All
compositions
% FeO 40
between pure
Forsterite
and pure
30 Fayalite are
possible

20

10 Mg2SiO4
(Forsterite)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
% MgO
 OLIVINE
STRUCTURE
Oxygen

Cation

Silica
Tetrahedron
 WEATHERING
Four major processes under which rocks change their physical or
chemical properties:
 Melting (at very high temperatures)
 Metamorphism (high temperatures / pressure / addition)
 Hydrothermal alteration (through high-temperature fluids)
 Weathering (at ordinary temperatures and pressure)

Types of weathering:
 Physical (mechanical breakdown of rocks)
• erosion, thermal expansion/contraction, action of plants
 Chemical (breakdown of rocks through chemical processes)
• contact with water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc.
 SCHEMATICS OF ALTERATION OF
ULTRAMAFIC ROCKS

Chemical weathering under

Unserpentinised
Ultramafic

tropical conditions
Rocks
Se
(H rp Nickel
yd en Laterites
al ro tin
te th is
ra e at
tio rm io Serpentinised
n) al n
UM Rocks
 CHEMICAL WEATHERING

“The process in which rocks react to atmospheric, hydrospheric and

biologic agencies to produce mineral phases that are more stable”

1. Hydrolysis
Oxygen, carbon dioxide, ground water, dissolved acids attack the
minerals in the rock
2. Oxidation
Elements released by chemical weathering are oxidised
3. Hydration
Reaction with water adds the hydroxyl ion to newly formed minerals
4. Solution
The more soluble products of weathering are dissolved and removed
And the cycle continues .....
CONDITIONS FOR CHEMICAL WEATHERING

Acidic Acidic RAIN AND THUNDER STORMS

Rain Rain Nitrous oxides, CO2

HUMOUS (Organic) LAYER

(Reducing conditions)

ZONE OF OXIDATION

WATER TABLE

(Reducing conditions)
 CHEMICAL WEATHERING – 1. Hydrolysis

• The sum of negative and positive charges are equal

within a crystal (Pauling’s Rule)
• However, exposed atoms and ions on crystal surfaces
possess unsaturated valencies and are thus charged
• Water molecules are attracted to the charged surfaces
• Attractive forces cause polarisation of water into H+ and
OH- ions
• Hydroxyl (OH)- ions then bond to exposed cations
• Hydrogen ions (H)+ bond to exposed oxygen and other
negative ions
• In the case of silicates, H+ attacks the Si-O-Si bonds and
releases silica as orthosilicic acid (H4SiO4)
 CHEMICAL WEATHERING – 2. Oxidation

• Common oxidising agent in the soil is oxygen dissolved in

ground water
• Much of ferrous ions in the weathering profile are converted
to ferric state under highly oxidising conditions.
• Oxidising conditions exist only above the water table
• Below the water table, conditions are generally reducing
• Organic matter at the very top may also create reducing
conditions
• Hot, well-drained environment favours oxidation through the
destruction of organic matter and lowering of water table
• Cool, poorly-drained environment promotes accumulation of
organic matter and reducing conditions
 CHEMICAL WEATHERING – 3. Hydration

• In the presence of Hydroxyl ion (OH)-, freshly created oxides are

converted to hydroxides

• The more common hydroxides found in lateritic soils include:

 Hydrated iron oxides: Goethite / Limonite
 Hydrated Aluminum oxides: Boehmite / Bauxite / Gibbsite
 Hydrated manganese oxides: Pyrochroite / Manganite /
Psilomelane

• Many new secondary mafic minerals are formed due to hydration:

 Serpentine / Talc / Chlorite

• Hydration also results in the formation of clay minerals:

 Kaolinite; Halloysite; Illite; Smectites; Saponite
 CHEMICAL WEATHERING – 4. Solution

• For chemical weathering to continue, broken down

constituents must be removed
• Solution of broken down constituents exposes new surfaces
• Dissolved constituents are removed by percolating ground
waters
• Ground waters generally travel from top to bottom in a
weathering profile
• Dissolved constituents are eventually drained out to rivers,
lakes and the ocean
• The relative proportions of dissolved constituents in ground
water confirm the relative solubilities of various oxides in the
laboratory
• Dissolved CO2 in ground water is a very strong leaching agent
 Solubilities of Minerals

• Solubilities of some minerals:

 Halite (NaCl): 3005 g/litre

 Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O): 1.8 g/litre
 Silica gel: 0.12 g/litre
 Quartz (SiO2): 0.007 g/litre

• Relative solubilities of some minerals (Paul Golightly):

 Forsterite
Highly soluble
 Enstatite
 Serpentine
 Talc
 Amorphous silica
 Nickel Talc (Kerolite)
 Gibbsite
 Goethite Highly insoluble
 Relative Mobilities

• Polynov’s estimate of elemental mobilities:

Cl SO4 Ca++ Na+ Mg++ K+ SiO2 Fe2O3 Al2O3

100 57.0 3.0 2.4 1.3 1.25 0.2 0.04 0.02

• Hudson’s estimate of elemental mobilities

Cl > SO4 > Na > Ca > Mg > K > Si > Fe+++ > Al

• Soluble Supergene
Berger’s estimate of hydroxide mobilities:Residual
Mg Mn++ Co++ Ni++ Al+++ Cr+++ Fe+++
3.1 1.3 -1.7 -3.2 -15.3 -16.4 -18.1
 Effective Mobilities

• Highly soluble and highly mobile

 Easily leached out of the laterite profile
 Taken to lakes, rivers and the sea
Ca, Na, Mg, K, Si

• Limited solubility –— Supergene enrichment

 Partly soluble in acidic ground water
 Insoluble in the presence of more soluble elements (Si,
Mg)
Ni++, Co++, Mn++

• Non soluble and residual

 Insoluble in ground waters at ordinary pH / Eh conditions
 Make up bulk of the residual soil
Al+++, Fe+++, Cr+++, Ti, Mn+++
 Weathering of Olivine

Sorowako Olivine:
Forsterite: 2MgO.SiO2 (MgO = 57.3%)
• FeO = 9.0%
Replacements • Al2O3 = 0.4%
• NiO = 0.37%
• Highly unstable in weathering • MnO = 0.12%
environment • Cr2O3 = 0.02%

• Individual SiO4 tetrahedra are • TiO2 = 0.02%

weakly bonded by cations
• Magnesia is highly soluble in ground water
• Release of magnesia breaks down the Olivine structure
• Breakdown of Olivines releases various cations:
 Mg, Fe, Al, Ni, Mn
 Weathering of Pyroxenes

Enstatite: MgO.SiO2 (MgO = 40.2%) Sorowako Pyroxene:

Opx Cpx
Replacements • FeO = 6.0 2.5
• Al2O3 = 3.2 3.5
• Relatively unstable in weathering • CaO = 1.9 21.7
environment (but < Olivine)
• NiO = 0.08 0.05
• Individual SiO4 tetrahedra are • MnO = 0.13 0.08
bonded by shared Oxygen • Cr2O3 = 0.58 0.86
• Magnesia is highly soluble in • TiO2 = 0.05 0.09
ground water
• Release of magnesia breaks down the Pyroxene
• Breakdown of Pyroxenes releases various cations:
 Mg, Fe, Al, Ca, Cr, Mn, Ni
 Weathering of Serpentine

• Serpentine: 3MgO.2SiO2.2H2O [H4Mg3Si2O9]

• Magnesia is leached out first, leaving behind a silica
enriched phase or montmorillonite and chlorite
• Ni can replace the magnesium being leached. This
results in the formation of:
 Nickeliferous serpentine

• Through a similar process, nickel is also fixed in Talc,

Chlorite, and Smectite
• Eventually, montmorillonite and chlorite also break
down, releasing remaining magnesia and silica and
forming iron sesquioxides
Course of Laterisation
 Course of Laterisation

Highly Mobile
Ca, Na, K, Mg

Ultramafic Olivine
Rocks
Opx
Cpx

Illite
Montmorillonite
Goethite
Less Mobile Non-Mobile
Siliceous Nontronite Fe, Al, Cr, Ti
Si Nontronite
 Course of Laterisation

MOBILE vs. NON-MOBILE ELEMENTS

IN COMMON MINERALS ASSOCIATED WITH LATERITES
100 NATURAL OLIVINES
90 & PYROXENES
(Na2O+K2O+CaO+MgO+SiO2)

Serpentine
80
MOBILE ELEMENTS

70 Clinochlore CLAYS &

CHLORITE Illite
60 Montmorillonite

50 Kaolin
Nontronite
40 Halloysite Hydroxides of aluminium and Red
Parent rock
30 iron (yellow & ochre colour) laterite

20 Saprolite with clays Saprolite & intermediate

10 having low Fe & Al zone with clays having high
Hematite
Fe & Al HYDROXIDES OF Al AND Fe
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
NON-MOBILE ELEMENTS (Al2O3 + Fe2O3)
Dunite to Goethite — Mass Balance

1.0 m
Dunite 0.32 m
Goethite

Dunite Goethite
Mineral Olivine Goethite
Composition (Mg,Fe)2SiO4 Fe2O3.H2O
Block size, m. 1x1x1 1 x 1 x 0.32
Particle density 3.2 4.4
Dry Bulk Density 3.2 1.1
Fe content, % 5.5% 50%
Kg of Fe 176 176

Dunite: density x % Fe 17.6

Volume of Goethite = = = 0.32
Goethite: density x % Fe 55.0
 LOWERING OF LANDSCAPE

Acidic
Rain

3m
Ultramafics
CaO = 0.5%
Highly mobile; Na2O = 0.1
quickly leached. K2O = 0.1
(87%) MgO = 45%
SiO2 = 41%
MnO = 0.1% Less mobile;
(< 1%) CoO = 0.005%
supergene
enrichment.
NiO = 0.4%
Al2O3 = 1.1% Non-mobile;
(12%) Cr2O3 = 0.5% residual Limonite 1m
concentration.
Fe2O3 = 10%
 5.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE
LATERITE FORMATION

Vale Inco Exploration

 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
ATMOSPHERIC BIOSPHERIC
Temperature Vegetation type
Rainfall Decay intensity
Acidity of rain Microbial activity
Seasonality Human activity

WEATHERING
SYSTEM

HYDROSPHERIC LITHOSPHERIC
Water availability Geomorphology
Water absorption Rock composition
Up/down movement COMBINATION Mineral grain size
Porosity/drainage pH (acidity) Mineral stabilities
Water table position Eh (Redox) Porosity
Water table fluctuation Rate of removal Fractures & joints
Time duration
 Role of Climate

• TEMPERATURE
 Each 10 C change increases weathering speed by 2-3 times
 Chemical weathering in tropics is 20-40 times higher than in
temperate regions
• RAINFALL
 Acidity of rain (dissolved CO2, Nitrous oxides)
 Amount of precipitation (higher rainfall = higher leaching)
 Seasonality: Constant humid vs. Wet/dry seasonal
• EFFECT OF CLIMATE
 Hematitic soils develop in hot and dryer climate
 Goethitic/limonitic soils develop in hot and wet climate
 Hot and humid climate leads to complete leaching of SiO2 & MgO
 Seasonal wet/dry climate leads to formation of smectites
 Climate can vary considerably over time [fossil laterites]
SOILS & RELATIVE DEPTH OF WEATHERING

Tundra

Savannas
Tropical

Savannas
Semi-desert
& Desert
Steppes
Taiga (Northern
Forests
Rainfall, 0 – 3,000 mm
Temperature, 0 - 30ºC

K Fe/Al
I/M
Legend: K
Fe/Al: Oxides/Hydroxides
I/M
K: Kaolinite clays Bedrock with incipient
I/M: Illite/Montmorillonite chemical alteration
 Role of biological activity

• Tropical climate leads to rapid decay of biological matter

• Microbial activity hastens the decay process
• Vegetation decay forms various organic acids: humic,
carbonic, fulvic, crenic, apocrenic, oxalic and lichenic
acids
• Presence of organic matter creates reducing conditions
(assists the conversion of ferric to ferrous iron)
 Hydrospheric factors

• WATER ABSORPTION
• WATER TABLE
 Vadose zone: lying above the water table.
This zone is wetted by meteoric water that comes from
above. Zone of non-saturation. Zone of oxidation.
 Phreatic zone: lying below the water table.
This zone is wetted by water held in pore spaces.
Zone of saturation. Zone of reduction.
• FLUCTUATION OF WATER TABLE
 Assists greatly in flushing the laterite of dissolved material
 Controls supergene enrichment of Mn and Co
 Role of Water Table

• The position of water table depends on:

 Amount of rainfall
 Ground porosity/permeability
 Topographic characteristics

• Permanently High water table

 Much of rock filled with water
 Less oxygen being supplied

• Permanently Low water table

 Likely less rainfall and little ground water to attack minerals
 Slow removal of dissolved material

• Fluctuating water table

 Varying zones of oxidation and reduction
 Frequent flushing of system to remove dissolved material
 Lithologic Factors

• PARENT ROCK COMPOSITION

 Rocks high in Fe yield iron laterites (mafic / ultramafic)
 Rocks high in Al yield aluminous bauxites (syenites / trachytes)
 Rocks with some nickel content yield nickeliferous laterites
 Unserpentinised peridotites are more susceptible to weathering
than serpentinised peridotites
• MINERAL GRAIN SIZE
 Coarse-grained rocks are more susceptible to weathering
• FRACTURES / FAULTS / JOINTS
 Provide access to acidic ground waters; assist in removal of
dissolved material
• STABILITY OF MINERALS
 Process of chemical weathering leads to the formation of
secondary minerals that are increasingly more stable
 Composition of primary
ferromagnesian silicates

Olivine Ortho-pyroxene Clino-pyroxene

SiO2 40 55 – 62 50 – 53
TiO2 0.02 – 0.05 0.02 – 0.05 0.1 – 0.6
Al2O3 0.4 – 0.6 1.7 – 3.2 3–4
Cr2O3 0.02 – 0.2 0.6 0.8 – 0.9
Fe2O3 All iron reported as FeO
FeO 8 – 10 5–6 2.5 – 4.0
MnO 0.12 – 0.16 0.1 0.1
NiO 0.3 – 0.5 0.06 – 0.1 0.05 – 0.07
CoO 0.01 – 0.02 0.006 0.003
MgO 47 – 51 32 – 35 18 – 22
CaO 0.04 – 0.07 1–2 17 – 22
 Stability of Minerals

Goldich (1938) determined the following sequence of decreasing

weathering susceptibilities for the common rock-forming minerals

Olivine Ca-Plagioclase

Augite

Hornblende Na-Plagioclase
Biotites

K-Feldspar

Muscovite

Quartz
 Stability of Minerals (continued)
• In general, crystal structure of mafic silicates controls weathering:
 Olivine, with its independent silicon tetrahedra is the most
unstable
 Pyroxenes, with polymerised chains, are more stable
 Amphiboles, with their ring structures, are still more stable
 Clays and micas with sheet-like structure are the most stable

• Reiche (1943) devised a Weathering Potential Index:

Mineral WPI Mineral WPI

Forsterite 66 Biotite 22
Enstatite 55 Orthoclase 12
Anthophyllite 40 Quartz 0
Augite 39 Muscovite -10.7
Hornblende 36 Kaolinite -67
Talc 29 Gibbsite -300
Transformation of primary minerals during
laterisation

Ultimate Hematite [Fe2O3] Boehmite [Al2O3.H2O]

stable Goethite [Fe2O3.H2O] Bauxite [Al2O3.2H2O]
residuum
Increased Leaching

Limonite [Fe2O3.3H2O] Gibbsite [Al2O3.3H2O]

Secondary Kaolinite Kaolinite
minerals Smectites

Primary Olivine Plagioclase

minerals Pyroxene Alkali Feldspars
 Order of formation of clay minerals

• The progression of clay minerals generally follows the

line of reduction of leachable components (SiO2, MgO):

Type of clay % Leachables % Non-leachables

Nontronite 38.0 (SiO2) 50.6 (Fe2O3)

Halloysite 40.8 (SiO2) 34.6 (Al2O3)

Kaolinite 46.5 (SiO2) 39.5 (Al2O3)

Siliceous 57.5 (SiO2) 38.2 (Fe2O3)

nontronite
Montmorillonite 62.3 (CaO, MgO, SiO2) 18.3 (Al2O3)

Clinochlore 68.7 (MgO, SiO2) 18.3 (Al2O3)

Lithologic Factors  Role of Topography

• Control of water absorption

 High water run-off on steep slopes
 High water absorption on moderate & gentle slopes
 Water logging and saturation in basin areas
• Rate of sub-surface drainage and removal of dissolved
• Rate of erosion
• Control of laterite preservation
 Slopes of <15% are generally required to preserve the laterite
• Ideal landforms for laterite development & preservation
 Rolling to gently sloping morphology
 Elevated area
 Surface runoff is not excessive
 Sub-surface drainage is good
 Various topographic profiles

Steep Hill

Gentle Hill
Depression / basin

Plateau

River Terrace

Dissected Plateau
 Combination Factors  (pH) conditions
• pH of normal waters lies between 4 and 9
• Most oxides show some solubilities in natural waters
• Oxides of Ca, Mg, Na and K are completely soluble
• Oxides of Ti, Al, and Ferric iron (Fe+++) are insoluble
• Solubilities of many oxides are pH dependent:
 Ti, Ca, Fe++ iron

• Alumina is not soluble in the normal ground water pH

• Alumina is soluble at pH < 4 and at pH > 10
• With abundant organic matter available, pH may drop to < 4
• Plant roots carry low pH values, commonly 4 but down to 2
• Where abundant basic minerals are being weathered (olivine,
pyroxene, nepheline), pH conditions may climb to beyond 9
 Combination Factors  (Eh) Potential

• Redox Potential of a system is a measure of the ability to bring

about reduction or oxidation reactions
• Reduction: decrease in the positive valency of an element (Fe+++ to
Fe++) or an increase in the negative valency of an element
• Oxidation: increase in the positive valency of an element (Fe++ to Fe+
++
) or the decrease in the negative valency of an element
• The neutral value of Redox Potential is zero
• At lower values (-), the R. Potential represents reducing conditions
• At higher values (+), the R. Potential represents oxidising conditions
• Two factors control the Redox Potential during weathering:
 Atmospheric oxygen (creates oxidising conditions)

 Organic matter (creates reducing conditions)

 Influence of Eh and pH on iron

1.0
Fe+++
0.8
Fe++ O2
0.6
Oxidisin

Natural H2O
g

0.4 Environments
0.2
Eh 0.0
H2O
- 0.2 H2
Reducin

Fe+++
- 0.4
g

Fe++
- 0.6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Acidic pH Alkaline
 Equilibrium fields of Fe and Mn
Fe Mn
O2 O2
+0.7 HO2 HO2
+0.6 MnO2
+0.5
+0.4 Fe(OH)3
+0.3 Mn2O3
+0.2
Mn++
+0.1
Eh(V)

Fe++ Mn3O4
0
-0.1
H+ Fe3(OH)3 H+

Mn(OH)2
-0.2
-0.3 H2 H2
-0.4 Fe(OH)2
-0.5
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
pH pH
 Combination Factors  Role of Time
• Laterisation rate based on mineral solubilities:
 1mm/100 years; 1m/100,000 years; 10m/million years
• Laterisation rate based on drainage water compositions
(P. Golightly, 1979)
 1.4mm/100 years; 1.4m/100,000 years; 14m/million years
• Chemical weathering in New Caledonia (Trescases, 1975)
 2.9-4.7mm/100 years
• Chemical weathering in Africa (Tardy, 1969)
 0.5-3.3mm/100 years
• Chemical weathering tends to slow down with time
• Interruptions in chemical weathering
• Fossil laterites
 Weathering Front

Thick Regolith due to

soil preservation

Thin Regolith due to

Regolith soil erosion

Water table Thick Regolith due to

deposition of transported soil

Weathering Front

Water table
 6.
ROLE OF VARIOUS ELEMENTS
DURING LATERISATION

Vale Inco Exploration

 Various elements present in laterites

• Ca
• Na
• Mg High mobility; mostly leached out
• K
• Si
• Mn
• Co Medium mobility; supergene enrichment
• Ni
• Al
• Cr No mobility; residual enrichment
• Fe
 Role of Ca

• Ca is present essentially in clinopyroxenes

 Ca in olivines = maximum 1%
 Ca in Orthopyroxenes = maximum 2%
 Ca in clinopyroxenes = 22% at Sorowako; 18% at Goro

• Ca is extremely soluble in ground water

• Practically all Ca is leached out in the early stages of
laterisation

• Final laterite residuum (goethite/limonite) have Ca

generally < 0.05%
 Role of alkalis (Na, K)

• Na and K present in ultramafic rocks in extremely small

quantities (< 0.1% each)
• Na and K are highly soluble in ground waters and are
quickly leached out of original ferromagnesian minerals
• All Na goes to the rivers/lakes/sea
• K is preferentially fixed in clay minerals (vermiculite,
montmorillonite, chlorites, micas, illites)
• Relative abundance of Na and K:

Wt.% in Wt.% in Wt.% in

earth’s crust Igneous rocks sea water

Na 2.8 2.29 1.08

K 2.6 2.22 0.04

 Role of Magnesia (MgO)

• Magnesia is present in Olivine, Pyroxene and Serpentine

 Olivine = 57%; Enstatite = 40%; Serpentine = 44%

• Magnesia is released by the breakdown of

ferromagnesian minerals
• Magnesia is highly soluble in ground water
• It is the first major component to be leached out in large
quantities
• Some magnesia may stay in the laterite profile to form
clay minerals and nickel hydrosilicates
• Final products of lateritic weathering (hematite/goethite/
limonite) do not contain any magnesia
 Role of Silica (SiO2)

• Silica is present in Olivine, Pyroxene and Serpentine

 Olivine = 43%; Enstatite = 60%; Serpentine = 43%

• Silica is released by the breakdown of ferro-magnesian

silicates
• In humid environments, laterite is constantly flushed
and little silica gets fixed as smectite/nontronite clays
• In wet-dry environments, flushing of laterite profile is
poor and silica gets fixed as smectite/nontronite clays in
the Intermediate Zone
• In the alkaline environment (where MgO is being
released), silica can precipitate from solution as
amorphous silica (silica veins, boxwork, coatings)
 Silica / MgO as a function of Fe

45
40
% SiO2, % MgO

35
30
25 SiO2
20
15
10
MgO
5
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

% Fe
 Role of Iron (Fe)

• Iron in ultramafics: Ferrous Ferric

 In olivine (MgO.FeO.SiO2) : Fe++
 In pyroxene (MgO.FeO.2SiO2) : Fe++
 In chromite (FeO.Cr2O3) : Fe++
 In ilmenite (FeO.TiO2) :Fe++

 In magnetite (FeO.Fe2O3) : Fe++ Fe+++

• Fe in mafic minerals causes great instability during weathering
• Breakdown of mafic minerals releases Ferrous ions
• Ferrous ions are quite soluble and mobile
• Ferrous ions get quickly oxidised to ferric ions, as:
 Hematite / Maghemite, Goethite, Limonite

• Iron in primary magnetite and ilmenite oxidises to form:

 Hematite / Maghemite, Goethite, Limonite
Role of Iron (Fe)  hematite vs. goethite

• Favourable conditions for the formation of hematite and

goethite (Kampf and Schwertmann, 1983):

Temperature Excess Soil pH Altitude

Moisture Carbon
Hematite High Low Low High Low

Goethite Low High High Low High

< 15 C > 1000mm > 3%
 Role of Alumina (Al2O3)

• Alumina is present in:

 Pyroxenes (as impurity and as solid solution)  2-4%

 Common Spinel (MgO.Al2O3)

• On the breakdown of pyroxenes, alumina is temporarily

fixed in the chlorites (Clinochlore: 5MgO.Al2O3.3SiO2.4H2O)
• After the breakdown of chlorites, alumina is fixed in
gibbsite (Al2O3.3H2O)

• Alumina is very insoluble in ground water in the pH

range commonly found (4 – 9)
• Al+++ and Fe+++ are truly residual elements in laterites
 Role of Cr

• Chromite occurs in ultramafics as

 Accessory chromite: FeO.Cr2O3
 Ionic replacement of Mg and Fe in Olivines and pyroxenes

• Trivalent Cr3+ in chromite is insoluble and very stable

• Divalent Cr2+ in ferromagnesian minerals is soluble and mobile
 Some Cr2+ is oxidised to Cr3+ and thus stabilised

 Some Cr2+ is oxidised to Cr6+ as hexavalent oxide (CrO3) or

hexavalent chromate (CrO4)2-
 Some hexavalent chrome may naturally get reduced to trivalent
chrome
 Remaining hexavalent chrome may be released to the natural
environment where it is extremely toxic (carcinogenic)
 Role of Ni

• Nickel is present in ferromagnesian minerals as ionic

replacement of Mg and Fe
 Olivines: 0.3%
 Orthopyroxenes: 0.1%
 Clinopyroxenes: 0.05%
 Serpentines: inherited from the primary mafic mineral

• After breakdown of mafic minerals, Ni is released

• Ni is soluble in percolating acidic waters
• Ni is insoluble in alkaline waters in the saprolite zone
• Ni is precipitated as hydrous nickel silicate with
serpentine, chlorite or clay structure
• Some nickel is adsorbed or enters the goethite structure
 Role of Mn and Co

• Minor amounts of Mn and Co are present in the mafic

minerals (Olivine and Pyroxene)
• On the breakdown of mafic minerals, Mn and Co are
released
• Mn and Co are slightly soluble in acidic waters at the top
of the laterite profile
• Mn and Co are very insoluble in alkaline waters
• Mn and Co concentrate at the bottom of the Limonite
Zone
• Much of Cobalt is tied to the manganese wad
 Major Elements in Laterite Profile

50
Fe
45 SiO2
LIMONITE SAPROLITE
PERCENTAGES

40
35

Transition zone
30
MgO
25
20
15
AlO2O3
10
5
0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
DEPTH IN METRES
 Minor Elements in Laterite Profile

3.5
Cr2O3
3.0
PERCENTAGES

LIMONITE SAPROLITE
2.5 Supergene Ni
enrichment
2.0
MnO
1.5 Ni
Transition zone

1.0

0.5
Co
0.0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
DEPTH IN METRES
Residual Concentrations at Petea

Original Limonite Concentration

Bedrock Zone Factor
Ni 0.28 1.00 3.6
Fe 6.0 50.0 8.3
Co < 0.007 0.131 18.7
SiO2 40.9 2.3 Leached out
MgO 35.3 1.5 Leached out
Al2O3 1.13 8.5 7.5
Cr2O3 0.45 3.44 7.6
MnO 0.13 1.25 9.6
TiO2 0.01 0.086 8.6
 7.
MINERALS ASSOCIATED WITH
ULTRAMAFICS & LATERITES

Vale Inco Exploration

 Oxides associated with laterites

+1 +2 +3 Spinels +4 +5 +6
Al2O3
CaO
CoO Co2O3
Cr2O3 CrO3
(CrO4)
FeO Fe2O3 Fe3O4
K2 O
MgO
MnO Mn2O3 Mn3O4 MnO2
Na2O
NiO
P2O5
SiO2
TiO
 Minerals Associated with UM and Laterites

Oxides & Nickel

Mafics Spinels Clays Hydroxides Silicates

Primary Olivine Magnetite

igneous Pyroxene Chromite
minerals

Hydro-
Serpentine Magnetite
thermal Talc
minerals Chlorite

Serpentine Kaolinite Silica Nepouite

Secondary Talc Smectite: Hematite Willemsite
Laterite Chlorite (Mont- Goethite Pimellite
weathering morillonite) Limonite Connarite
minerals (Nontronite) Bauxite Falcondite
Illite Gibbsite Nimite
Mixed Layer Noumeite
 LATERITE MINERAL ASSOCIATIONS

H2O SiO2
Talc
En
Serp.
Chlor. PYX
Fs
Brucite Fo OLIV
Fa
FeO Al2O3
MgO Boehmite
Bauxite
Gibbsite
Goethite
Magnetite Limonite
Magnesioferrite Xanthosiderite

Hematite
Esmeraldaite
Fe2O3 H2O
Primary Ferromagnesian Minerals
 Some Olivine Compositions

Sorowako Poro Tiebaghi Goro Goro

Unserp. Harzburg. Harzburg. Olvine Olivine
SiO2 40.3 40.8 39.2 39.9 40.9
TiO2 0.02 0.016 0.046
Al2O3 0.41 0.38 0.63
Cr2O3 0.02 0.21 0.08
Fe2O3 All iron reported as FeO
FeO 8.92 7.8 9.0 7.95 10.27
MnO 0.13 0.12 0.157
NiO 0.37 0.5 0.3 0.356 0.304
CoO 0.013 0.010 0.019
MgO 50.8 49.2 51.4 51.4 47.1
CaO 0.07 0.039 0.69
Totals 101.28 98.3 99.9 100.84 100.2
 OLIVINES — Formation

• Forsterite crystallises first (higher melting temperature)

• If the olivine is allowed to react with the liquid magma, it
will change its composition towards ferrous olivine
• As the larger ferrous cations replace the smaller Mg
cations, the melting temperature is progressively
reduced
• If the original magma has more silica than can be used
by the olivines (> 40%), then the more siliceous mafic
minerals such as pyroxenes will be formed
• Olivines can take up to 0.5% of NiO (0.4% Ni)
• Ni occurs as replacement of Mg atoms by Ni atoms
 Pyroxenes

• General Formula: R2Si2O6 or RO.SiO2

• Orthopyroxenes:
Wo (Ca)
 Enstatite: MgSiO3

 Ferrosilite: FeSiO3 Diopside

Ferro-
Augite augite
 Hypersthene: (Mg,Fe)SiO3
Pigeonite
• Clinopyroxenes:
En
Orthopyroxenes
Fs
 Diopside: (Ca,Mg)SiO3 (Mg) (Fe)

 Augite: (Ca, Mg, Fe)SiO3

 Some Pyroxene compositions

Soroako Goro Poro Tiebaghi Soroako Goro

Unserp Harzburg. Harzburg. Unserp.
Opx Opx Opx Opx Cpx Cpx
SiO2 55.1 55.9 60.1 61.8 53.2 50.5
TiO2 0.05 0.022 0.09 0.55
Al2O3 3.23 1.72 3.47 4.09
Cr2O3 0.58 0.57 0.86 0.916
FeO 5.79 5.3 5.8 5.4 2.52 3.96
MnO 0.13 0.13 0.08 0.105
NiO 0.076 0.073 0.1 0.06 0.05 0.074
CoO 0.006 0.006 <0.006 0.003
MgO 33.5 35.1 34.7 32.7 18.5 22.3
CaO 1.86 1.04 21.7 17.65
Totals 100.7 99.97 100.7 99.96 101.1 101.5
 ALTERATION OF OLIVINE

Alteration of Forsterite
+800°C: Fo to En Magmatic
625-800°C: Fo to En to Talc
500-625°C: Fo to Talc Hydro
200-500°C: Fo to Serpentine
thermal H2O

Serpentine

Talc

MgO Fo En SiO2
 HEAT GRADIENT IN THE CRUST

Volcanic Areas: 1 ºC / 10m

Heat Gradients: Average Earth: 1 ºC / 30-35m
Thick Continental crust: 1 ºC / 100m
350
Volcanic Average
Temperature, Celcius

300
Areas Earth
250
200
150
Thick
100
Continent
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

DEPTH, kilometres
 Serpentinisation of Olivines

• Olivine Serpentine
Mg2SiO4 H4Mg3Si2O9
2(MgO).SiO2 3(MgO).2SiO2.2H2O
D = 3.2 D = 2.2 – 2.4

In terms of equivalent MgO content:

6(MgO).3SiO2 6(MgO).4SiO2.4H2O

• Process of serpentinisation involves:

 Addition of water
 Addition of silica (or removal of MgO)
 Release of FeO and its oxidation to Fe3O4 (magnetite)
 Lowering of bulk density (increase in volume)
 Hydrothermal Minerals  Serpentines

• Lizardite: (not the same as serpentinite)

 Most common form
 Massive

• Antigorite:
 Micaceous, foliated, lamellar, columnar form
 Lamellae are stiff and brittle

• Chrysotile:
 Delicately fibrous
 Fibres are flexible and easily separable
 Occurs in veins or matted masses
 Most common constituent of commercial “asbestos”
 Hazardous to human health if fibres are inhaled
 Other Serpentine group minerals

• Talc
 H2Mg3Si4O12 (4.8% LOI)

• Sepiolite
 H4Mg2Si3O10 (12.1% LOI)

• High-water Sepiolite
 H10Mg4Si6O21 (14.7% LOI)

• Saponite
 H32Mg9Al2Si10O48 (21.3% LOI)

• Iddingsite
 H8MgFe2Si3O14 (15.9% LOI)
 Chlorites

Chlorite (clinochlore) falls in composition in between

serpentine and amesite:

• Serpentine H4Mg3Si2O9 (13.0% LOI)

• Clinochlore H8Mg5Al2Si3O18 (13.0% LOI)

• Amesite H4Mg2Al2SiO9 (12.9% LOI)

Chlorite compositions

Penninite, Chlinochlore and

Amesite have 13% water of
hydration that is not shown
in the ternary plot
 SPINELS and OXIDES

SPINELS: RO.R2O3 [R=Fe, Mg, Mn, Ni, Zn]

[R2=Al, Fe, Cr, Mn]

• Magnetite: Fe3O4 (FeO.Fe2O3) [Fe=72.3%]

• Chromite: FeCr2O4 (FeO.Cr2O3)
• Common spinel: MgAl2O4 (MgO.Al2O3)

OXIDES:
• Hematite: Fe2O3 [Fe=69.9%]
• Maghemite: Fe2.66 O4 [Fe=69.9%]
• Silica: SiO2
SPINELS
 Iron and Chrome Spinels

FeO

Magnetite Chromite

Fe2O3 Cr2O3
Magnesioferrite Magnesiochromite

MgO
 HEMATITE / MAGHEMITE

• Hematite – Fe2O3
 Non-magnetic
 Formed through reduction of Ferric Hydroxides
 Gives the laterite its distinctive “red” colour (laterite rouge)

• Maghemite – Fe2O3 — Fe3O4

 Magnetic variety of hematite
 Partial reduction of hematite through forest fires?
 Crystal structure closer to that of magnetite (Fe2.66 O4)
 Iron deficiency in structure amounts to 11.33%
 The spinel structure of maghemite inverts to the hematite
structure on heating
 HYDROXIDES

• Hydroxides of Iron: H2O+

 Turgite Fe2O3.0.5H2O 5.3%
 Goethite Fe2O3.H2O 10.1%
 Hydrogoethite Fe2O3.1.33H2O 13.1%
 Limonite Fe2O3.1.5H2O 14.5%
 Xanthosiderite Fe2O3.2H2O 18.4%
 Esmeraldaite Fe2O3.4H2O 31.1%

• Hydroxides of Aluminium:
 Boehmite Al2O3.H2O 15.1%
 Bauxite Al2O3.2H2O 26.1%
 Gibbsite Al2O3.3H2O 34.7%

• Hydroxide of Magnesium
 Brucite MgO.H2O 30.9
 LATERITE MINERAL ASSOCIATIONS

H2O SiO2
Talc
En
Serp.
Chlor. PYX
Fs
Brucite Fo OLIV
Fa
FeO Al2O3
MgO Boehmite
Bauxite
Gibbsite

Goethite
Magnetite Limonite
Magnesioferrite Xanthosiderite

Hematite
Esmeraldaite
Fe2O3 H2O
 HYDROXIDES OF Fe AND Al

Gib b s ite : Al2 O3 .3 H2 O

Ba uxite : Al2 O3 .2 H2 O H2O
Bo e hmite : Al2 O3 .H2 O
Co rund um: Al2 O3
Es me ra ld a ite : Fe 2 O3 .4 H2 O
Xa ntho s id e rite : Fe 2 O3 .2 H2 O
Limo nite : Fe 2 O3 .1 .5 H2 O
Go e thite : Fe 2 O3 .H2 O Group name
He ma tite : Fe 2 O3
“Limonites”

Gib b s ite E s me ra ld a ite (Lim)

B a uxite 2 H2 O
Xa ntho s id e rite (Lim)
Bo e hmite Limo nite
1 H2 O Go e thite
Co rund um He ma tite

Al2O3 Fe 2O3
Aluminum Se s quio xide Iro n S e s quioxide
 Bonsora Goethite Compositions

3 – 6m 6 – 9m 9 – 12m
SiO2 1.61 1.33 2.71
TiO2 0.08 0.18 0.09
Al2O3 10.24 11.13 11.95
Cr2O3 3.25 3.37 3.15
Fe2O3 71.96 70.23 68.79
MnO2 0.08 0.04 0.08
NiO 0.41 0.36 0.13
CoO
MgO 0.48 0.46 0.47
CaO 0.02 0.01 0.01
LOI ? ? ?
Totals 88.26 87.13 87.41
 ASBOLITE

• Asbolane or manganese wad is black and amorphous

• It occurs as thin coatings on joints, fractures and
occasionally as nodules and beads
• The material is rich in manganese and contains
appreciable quantities of Fe2O3, Al2O3, CoO and NiO
• Significant amount of water of hydration may be present
(12% in a sample from New Caledonia)
Soroako Soroako Soroako Soroako New
Lim. 3-6m Lim. 6-9m Lim. 9-12m Saprolite Caledonia
Al2O3 9.0 15.0 7.0 3.5 19.2
Fe2O3 18.4 14.3 36.0 14.2 16.0
Mn2O3 31.0 33.6 33.0 32.0 39.3
NiO 1.7 3.4 2.3 16.2 n.a.
CoO 7.1 7.4 5.0 3.2 7.0
 CLAY MINERAL COMPOSITIONS

• Kaolinite Al2Si2O5(OH)4

• Smectite - Montmorillonite (Al,Mg)2Si4O10(OH)2.nH2O

• Smectite - Nontronite Fe2(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2.nH2O

• Smectite – Saponite (Mg,Fe)3(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2.nH2O

• Illite KAl3Si3O10(OH)2
 GARNIERITE
GROUP

SiO2

10°A basal
Mg3Si4O10(OH)2.nH2O spacing
Kerolite - Talc Ni3Si4O10(OH)2.H2O
Serpentine GARNIERITES Pimelite
Mg3Si2O5(OH)4
Nepouite
7°A basal Ni3Si2O5(OH)4
spacing

MgO NiO
 HYDROSILICATES OF Mg AND Ni

Magnesian Hydrosilicates Nickel Hydrosilicates

(Serpentine & Talc Division)

Serpentine H4Mg3Si2O9 Pecroaite / H4Ni3Si2O9
(Chrys. / Lizard.) Nepouite
Talc H2Mg3Si4O12 Willemseite H2Ni3Si4O12

Kerolite H2Mg3Si4O12.nH2O Pimellite H2Ni3Si4O12.nH2O

(Hydrous Talc)
Sepiolite (Dana) H4Mg2Si3O10 Connarite H4Ni2Si3O10

Sepiolite (hi-H2O) H10Mg4Si6O21 Falcondite H10Ni4Si6O21

(Chlorite Division)
Clinochlore H8Mg5Al2Si3O18 Nimite H8Ni5Al2Si3O18
GARNIERITE COMPOSITION FIELDS
 NICKEL HYDROSILICATES

• In nickel hydrosilicates, nickel replaces the Mg atoms

• Replacement occurs in serpentine, talc and chlorite
• Garnierite is a group name for nickel hydrosilicates
• Garnierites have the crystal structure of serpentine, talc,
or chlorite
• Garnierites are largely of supergene origin
• Garnierites occur as fillings in open spaces or as
coatings in joint and fracture surfaces
• Garnierites range in colour from green (light and dark), to
yellow-green, to light blue and turquoise blue. Dark green
varieties carry more nickel
 GARNIERITE COMPOSITIONS-1

Test Pit - 717, Konde, Sorowako, Indonesia

SiO2 MgO FeO NiO
43.8 36.8 4.2 1.3
Wall
43.7 30.3 6.0 4.3
52.5 25.3 0.2 9.4
48.7 25.2 0.0 12.8
51.1 22.6 0.1 14.7
50.6 16.1 0.0 22.2
37.6 0.7 0.3 47.1
Centre
 GARNIERITE COMPOSITIONS-3

SiO2 MgO FeO NiO

New Caledonia, sample-1 53.0 18.1 0.1 20.9
New Caledonia, sample-2 49.0 18.9 0.2 21.7
New Caledonia, sample-3 53.2 15.0 0.0 24.5
New Caledonia, sample-4 49.8 13.5 0.2 29.2
New Caledonia, sample-5 37.4 2.7 0.3 49.6
Morro do Cerisco, Brazil 43.7 30.4 5.5 5.5
Morro do Niquel, Brazil 52.9 18.3 0.2 16.8
Riddle, Oregon, USA 47.8 18.6 0.1 19.6
Riddle, Oregon, USA 52.3 16.3 n.a. 20.8
 ASBESTIFORM MINERALS

• Serpentine Minerals
 Chrysotile

• Amphibole Minerals
 Tremolite-Actinolite
 Crocidolite
 Cummingtonite
 AMPHIBOLE MINERALS
Ca H Ca Si O
2 7 8 24

Tremolite Calcic amphiboles H2Ca2Fe5Si8O24

H2Ca2Mg5Si8O24
Actinolite Ferro
Actinolite

Cummingtonite Grunerite
H2Mg7Si8O24 Mg Fe H2Fe7Si8O24

Glaucophane Riebeckite (Crocidolite)

H2Na2Mg3Al2Si8O24 Sodic amphiboles
H2Na2Fe5Si8O24

H2Na14Si8O24
Na
Tigereye: Silica replacing crocidolite amphibole
 8.
PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF
LATERITES

Vale Inco Exploration

 BULK DENSITIES IN LATERITES

Ferricrete /
Ferruginous
Top Silcrete
zone

Intermediate
zone
Depth

Variable Density
Saprolite zone

Bottom
High Density
Bedrock zone

Bulk Density
 UPGRADING OF LATERITES

Run-of-mine Reject Recovered Ni

Wt.% / Ni Wt.% / Ni Wt.% / Ni upgrading
Sorowako W. Block 100% 65% 35%
-1” ore type 1.09% Ni 0.6% Ni 2.0% Ni 83%
Sorowako E. Block 100% 55% 45%
-1” ore type 1.33% Ni 1.03% Ni 1.7% Ni 28%
Sorowako E. Block 100% 23% 77%
-6” ore type 1.51% Ni 0.89% Ni 1.7% Ni 13%
Sorowako E. Block 100% 14% 86%
-18” ore type 1.59% Ni 0.9% Ni 1.7% Ni 7%
Bulong 100% 25% 75%
High upgrading ore 1.60% 0.94% Ni 1.82% Ni 14%
Bulong 100% 14% 86%
Low upgrading ore 1.58% Ni 0.85% 1.7% Ni 7%
Vermelho 100% 49.6% 50.4%
-100# fraction 0.8% Ni 0.34% 1.25% Ni 56%
 UPGRADING INDEX AS A FUNCTION OF REJECT
QUANTITY AND REJECT GRADE

3.0
2.8 Values of Upgrading Index are based on a
constant Head Grade of 1.0% Ni with variable
2.6 quantity of rejects (X-axis) and variable grade of 0.0
2.4 rejects (different curves).
0.1
2.2
UPGRADING INDEX

2.0 0.2
1.8 0.3
1.6
0.4
1.4
0.5
1.2
1.0 0.6
0.8 0.7
0.6
0.8
0.4
0.9
0.2
1.0
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
QUANTITY OF REJECT, wt%
P.T. INCO Forms of nickel in the laterite profile

Nickel as hydroxide essentially in the

Ferruginous zone goethite-limonite structure. Some Ni
adsorbed by Mn-Hydroxides.

Nickel as hydro-silicate essentially with

the talc-serpentine-clay lattice structure:
Nickel talc
Saprolite zone
Nickel serpentine
Nickel smectites

Nickel as silicate essentially in the ferro-

magnesian minerals, as ionic
replacement of Mg and Fe atoms:
Bedrock Olivine
Pyroxene
Serpentine
Favourable Laterite Landforms
 Considerations for developing
a nickel laterite project
• Nickel grade; cobalt grade
• Resource tonnage / Life of Mine / scale of operation
• Ore chemistry and mineralogy
• Ore consistency
• Upgradeability of ore
• Process selection
• Availability of cheap power supply
• Selection of fuel
• Availability of raw materials: water, silica flux, aggregate
• Availability of infrastructure
• Location of project
• Mining method
• Environmental considerations
• Negotiations with local and central governments
• Funding of the project
• Selection of engineer and contractor
 Major risks in nickel laterite projects

• Political risk
 Bureaucracy
 Regulatory framework (environmental, legal)
 Taxation, royalties

• Slow ramp-up rates

• Energy costs
• Depressed metal prices
• Processing risk
• Construction risk
• Financial elements: interest rates, exchange rates
• Environmental regulations: lower thresholds
 NEW LATERITE PROJECTS 2006-2008

New Projects:
 Goro Nickel, New Caledonia 54 k
 Onca-Puma, Brazil 25 k
 Ravensthorpe, Australia (QNI) 50 k
 Ramu River, PNG

Under
Construction
Expansions:
 Sorowako, Indonesia 22 k
 Doniambo, New Caledonia 15 k
 Murrin-Murrin, Australia 10 k
 NEW LATERITE PROJECTS 2010-2015

New Projects:
 Koniambo, New Caledonia 54 k
 Vermellho, Brazil 45 k
 Ambatovy, Madagascar 40 k
 Barro Alto, Brazil 20 k
 Fenix (Skye), Guatemala 20 k
 Sorowako HPAL, Indonesia 20 k
 Pomalaa HPAL, Indonesia 20-45

Expansions:
 Coral Bay, Philippines 15 k
 Moa Bay, Cuba 17 k
 Loma de Niquel, Venezuela 17 k
 NEW LATERITE PROJECTS –
Beyond 2015

New Projects:
 Bahodopi, Indonesia
 Gag Island, Indonesia
 Weda Bay, Indonesia

Expansions:
 Goro, New Caledonia
 Sulawesi, Indonesia
 Onca-Puma, Brazil
 Cuba
 9.
PROCESSING OF
NICKEL LATERITES

Vale Inco Exploration

 PROCESSING OF Ni LATERITES

• Pyrometallurgical processing
(Ore is melted)
 Production of Ferro-nickel
 Production of Ni-S matte

• Hydrometallurgical processing (Leaching by acid)

 PAL (Pressure acid leaching) – HPAL
 EPAL (Enhanced Pressure Acid Leaching
 AL (Atmospheric Leaching)
 Heap Leaching

• Combined pyro and hydro process (Caron)

(Ore is reduced at high temperature, then leached)
 Ferro-Nickel Projects in the world

Project Owner Country Remarks

Cerro Matoso BHP-B Columbia
Codemin Anglo Brazil
Doniambo SLN/Eramet New Caledonia
Exmibal Ex. Inco Guatemala Mothballed
Falcondo Falconbridge Dominican Rep.
Fenimark FENI (govt.) Macedonia Closed
Hyuga Sumitomo Japan Imported ore
Larymna Larco Greece
Loma de Hiero Anglo Venezuela
Morro do Niquel Anglo Brazil Closed
Oheyama Nippon Yakin Japan Imported ore
Onca-Puma Vale Inco Brazil
PAMCO Nippon Steel Japan Imported ore
Pomalaa ANTAM Indonesia Some imported ore
 Nickel-Matte Projects of the world

Project Owner Country Remarks

Sorowako PT Inco Indonesia
Doniambo SLN/Eramet New Caledonia
 HPAL Projects of the world

Project Owner Country Remarks

Moa Bay Cuba Niquel Cuba First HPAL
Bulong Australia Shut down
Cawse Norilsk Australia
Murrin-Murrin Minara Australia
Coral Bay Sumitomo Philippines
Goro Vale Inco New Caledonia Under construction
Ramu River PNG Under construction
Ravensthorpe BHP-B Australia Under construction
 CARON Projects of the world

Project Owner Country Remarks

Nicaro Union del Niq Cuba
Punta Gorda Union del Niq Cuba
Nonoc Philippines Closed
QNI BHP-Billiton Australia Imported ores
Tocantins Niquel Toc. Brazil
 Heap Leach Projects of the world

Project Owner Country Remarks

Caldag European Turkey First Heap Leach
Nickel project

Ravensthorpe BHP-B Australia Part of flow sheet

Murrin-Murrin Minara Australia Expansion of
project
Piaui Vale Brazil Being fast-tracked
for production
PYROMETALLURGICAL PROCESSING

Ferro-Nickel Process Nickel-Matte Process

Upgrading in the mine Upgrading in the mine

Drying of ore Drying of ore

Upgrading after drying Upgrading after drying

Calcining Calcining

Electric Furnace Smelting Electric Furnace Smelting

Refining Furnace Converting

Ferro-Nickel Product Nickel-Matte Product

20 – 50% Ni 78% Ni
 PYROMETALLURGY

Important concerns:
• Slag should not attack refractory (S/M ratio)
• Melting temperature should be suitable (S/M; Fe)
• Olivine should not be introduced to the furnace
• Appropriate reduction of ore prior to smelting
• Ni/Fe ratio in the ore for ferro-nickel operation
HYDROMETALLURGICAL PROCESSING

Ore Preparation: wetting, screening

Pre Heating through flash steam

Pressure Acid Leach in autoclave

Heat recovery from leached pulp

CCD thickening and washing

Neutralisation of pregnant solution

Precipitation of metals by adding H2S/alkali

Solid/liquid separation

Ni/Co products as mixed sulphides, oxides, hydroxides

 HYDROMETALLURGY

Important concerns:
• Amounts of soluble Mg and Al in ore (acid consumers)
• Acid to ore ratio required for process
• Minimum operating temperature required to leach
• What is the appropriate pressure during leaching
• Retention time in the autoclave
• Rheological behaviour during slurrying
• How to recover metals in the back end of processing
• What product to make
 CARON PROCESS

Ore Preparation: screening, upgrading

Drying, using oil or coal

Grinding

Reduction, using CO/H2

Ammonia leaching

CCD thickening and washing

Stripping, using steam

Calcining of Ni/Co precipitate

Sintering of calcine

Nickel oxide product

 NICKEL SULPHIDE vs. LATERITE PROCESSING

Nickel Sulphide Nickel Laterite

Mining Hard rock mining more Soft rock mining cheap.
expensive. Many sulphides U/G Only open cast mining
Deposit More uniform in chemistry and More varied in chemistry
uniformity mineralogy and mineralogy; stratified
Upgrading Highly upgradeable to sulphide Low upgradeability. Final
concentrate grade generally <2.0% Ni.
Ore/Con Relatively cheap (per lb Ni) due Relatively high (per lb Ni)
shipping to high upgradeability due to low upgradeability
Processing cost Modest due to high Ni content. High due to low Ni content.
Sulphur provides latent heat. High energy input required.
Ni recovery High due to consistency of ore Modest due to compromise
chemistry and mineralogy for prevalent chemistry
Capital cost Modest per lb of Ni High per lb of Ni
Project size/life Can be short to medium Long to pay for high capital
 NICKEL LATERITE PROJECT
OF
P.T. INCO, INDONESIA

Vale Inco Exploration

 6,600,000 Hectares

PT INCO — Original
Concession area
 Original
Concession
6,600,000 Ha Malili

Current
Concession
218,529 Ha
(3.3%)
Favourable Laterite Landforms
 Sample Representivity

100m

100m 1m

HQ core size: 63.5mm diameter

HQ 1m Core sample: 0.003167 cu m.

core hole 100x100x1m volume: 10,000 cu m
Representation ratio: 1 : 3.2 million

To improve sample representivity:

(1) Increase the size of sample per metre
(2) Increase the sampling density
 Representivity of sample as a function of
Sample size and sample spacing
100,000,000
10,000,000
NQ
1,000,000
100,000
ERTK Trivelsonda
Ratio drilled to core volume

10,000
T. Pit
1,000
100
NQ HQ PQ
10
1 ERTK Trivelsonda Test Pit
0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
DRILL SPACING, Metres
 SUCCESS OF SAMPLING AT PTI

H.Auger (WB)
Winkie (WB)
High
H.Auger (EB)
Sampling Bias

Winkie (EB)
P.Auger (WB)
B. Hammer
Medium (WB)
P.Auger (EB)

Core hole (NQ)

Low Core hole (PQ)
T.Pit (EB) Core hole (LD)

Low Medium High

Depth of Laterite Penetration

 Ore types and screen recoveries
Screen recoveries given on wet basis

-1” +1-6” +6-18” +18”

18” ore Ore Ore Ore Reject
(90% Rec.) 55% 20% 15% 10%

6” ore Ore Ore Reject Reject

(75% Rec.) 55% 20% 15% 10%

1” ore Ore Reject Reject Reject

(55% Rec.) 55% 20% 15% 10%

1” Hi Oliv. Ore Reject Reject Reject

(55% Rec.) 55% 20% 15% 10%

1” Lo Oliv. Ore Ore Reject Reject

(75% Rec.) 55% 20% 15% 10%
Simplified Process Plant Flow Sheet
Dry Dust

Dryer Kiln M.C ESP

Wet Ore Stockpile
HSFO
Air West Block (Reject) Rock
DKP
East Block (Crushed)
HSFO
Liquid Sulphur Air
Reduction Kiln
Hot Calcine (700°C)

Dried Ore Storage Stack

Scrubber
500 T 100 T
M.C ESP
E.L E.L E.L BIN BIN

Slag to Disposal area (1500°C) Dry Dust

Slurry Recycle
THICKENER Pugmill
Electric Furnace
Dust
Furnace Matte (1350°C) to Dryer
Silica Flux
Scrap Product Dryer

Air Fluid Bed

Converter
Granulated
Matte Cast Hot Gas
Matte
Water (Hi pressure)
Market
Granulation Oversize Packing
(Recycle to Converter)
WET ORE STOCKPILE
 Ore chemistry/mineralogy constraints

For efficient operation smelter feed must meet the

following requirement:

 S/M ratio 1.95 – 2.15 (optimum level of 2.05)

 Iron content 20 – 23% Fe (optimum level of 21.5%)
 Olivine content of <22% in any East Block batch
 Drying Operation
Dry Dust

Dryer Kiln M.C ESP

Wet Ore Stockpile
HSFO
Air West Block (Reject) Rock
DKP
East Block (Crushed)
HSFO
Liquid Sulphur Air
Reduction Kiln
Hot Calcine (700°C)

Dried Ore Storage Stack

Scrubber
500 T 100 T
M.C ESP
E.L E.L E.L BIN BIN

Slag to Disposal area (1500°C) Dry Dust

Screening of dried ore atSlurry

3/4“ screen
Pugmill Recycle
Electric Furnace THICKENER
Dust
Furnace Matte (1350°C) to Dryer
Silica Flux - 3/4“ + 3/4“
Scrap Product Dryer

West
Air Block type Product. Fluid Bed Reject.
Converter
Saved as Ore
Granulated
Discarded
Matte Cast Hot Gas
Matte
East Block type
Water (Hi pressure) Product. Crushed.
Market
Granulation Packing
Saved Oversize
as Ore
(Recycle to Converter) Added to Ore
DRYER
 Reduction Operation
Dry Dust

Dryer Kiln M.C ESP

Wet Ore Stockpile
HSFO
Air West Block (Reject) Rock
DKP
East Block (Crushed)
HSFO
Liquid Sulphur Air
Reduction Kiln
Hot Calcine (700°C)

Dried Ore Storage Stack

Scrubber
500 T 100 T
M.C ESP
E.L E.L E.L BIN BIN

Diameter,Slagm Length,
to Disposal area (1500°C) m Throughput, WmtDry/Dust
Hr
Slurry Recycle
Kiln 1 Electric Furnace 5.5 100 THICKENER 145 Pugmill
Dust
Furnace Matte (1350°C) to Dryer

Kiln 2
Silica Flux
Scrap 5.5 100
Product Dryer 145
Kiln 3 5.5
Fluid Bed
100 145
Air

Converter
Granulated
Kiln 4 Matte Cast 6.0 Matte 115
Hot Gas
Market
190
Water (Hi pressure)

Kiln 5 6.0
Granulation Oversize
135
(Recycle to Converter)
Packing 215
REDUCTION KILN

REDUCTION
KILN FEED
 PHASE DIAGRAM PTI FURNACES

Current 1979
T°C 20% 25% 30%
FeO FeO FeO
1700
LIQUID
1600

1500

1400
SOLID
1300
1 2 3 4 5 6
Silica / Magnesia Ratio
 PTI Furnace

Copper “fingers”
(water cooled)

Slag

Slag Matte
Matte

18 m Refractory bricks on
Sidewalls & hearth
 PTI Furnace

Olivine mush
causing ineffective Copper “fingers”
heat transfer (water cooled)

Slag

Slag Matte
Matte

18 m Refractory bricks on
Sidewalls & hearth
Converting, Granulating, Packing,
Shipping Dry Dust

Dryer Kiln M.C ESP

• Converter Matte
HSFO is cast, granulated with water sprays, dried,
Wet Ore Stockpile
Air West Block (Reject) Rock
DKP
East Block (Crushed)
HSFO
Liquid Sulphur
screened, packed into 3-tonne
Reduction Kiln polypropylene cloth bags,
Air

Hot Calcine (700°C)

and shipped to the client in Japan Dried Ore Storage Stack

Scrubber
500 T 100 T
ESP
• Average Product analysis:
E.L E.L E.L
78% Ni
M.C BIN BIN

Slag to Disposal area (1500°C) Dry Dust

1-2% Co
Slurry Recycle
THICKENER Pugmill
Electric Furnace
Dust
Furnace Matte (1350°C)
20% S to Dryer
Silica Flux
Scrap Product Dryer

Air Fluid Bed

Converter
Granulated
Matte Cast Hot Gas
Matte
Water (Hi pressure)
Market
Granulation Oversize Packing
(Recycle to Converter)
AVERAGE CHEMISTRY OF VARIOUS PRODUCTS

E. Block W. Block RKF Calcine EF EF Product

Ore Ore Slag Matte
SiO2 34.7 37.1 36.1 40.8 47.7
MgO 20.7 15.4 18.1 18.9 22.2
Fe2O3 27.7 32.0 30.0 29.2 25.9 Fe=61.5 Fe=0.5
FeO All iron reported as Fe2O3
Al2O3 3.12 2.53 2.92 2.77 3.02
Cr2O3 1.42 1.87 1.64 1.68 1.78
MnO 0.53 0.63 0.57 0.57 0.66
NiO 1.80 2.60 2.44 2.57 0.19 Ni=27.5 Ni=78.5
CoO 0.08 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.03 Co=0.76 Co=1.2
CaO 0.32 0.46 0.39 0.45 0.50
LOI ? ? ? 0.0 0.0 S=9.2 S=19.7
Total 90.86 92.69 92.25 97.03 101.98 98.96 99.90
 Determination of olivine content
THEORETICAL RELATIONSHIPS AMONG
OLIVINE, LOI AND S/M RATIO
15
14
13 Serpentine
% Loss on Ignition in Coarse Fraction

12 10
90
11 20
Acceptable
80
10 30 range of
70 olivine <22%
9
40
8 % Olivine 60
7 50
50
% Serpentine
6 60
40
5 70
4 30
80
3 20
2 90 (2:1 Opx:Cpx)
10 Pyroxene
1
Olivine
0
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2

SiO2/MgO in Coarse Fraction

 Formula for olivine determination

L = %LOI
S = S/M ratio

Polynomial function

% Olivine = (-7.8 x L) + (-0.017 x L2) + (-0.0001 x L3) +

(-406.7 x S) + (196.5 x S2) + (-37.1 x S3) +
(3.7 x L x S) + (0.018 x L2 x S) +
(-1.37 x L x S2) + 321.5

The formula is accurate to within +/- 2% olivine

 East Block Coarse Fraction of -1" SSP IN STOCKPILE E3A
( 16 JAN - 19 MAY, 26 - 31 MAY ) 2002
15
14 +3"-6"
Serpentine
13 +1" -3"
% Loss on Ignition in Coarse Fraction

10
12 90

11 20
80
10 30
70
9 40 % Serpentine
8 % Olivine
60

7 50
50

6 60 Orthopyroxene S/M = 1.7

40
5 Clinopyroxene S/M = 3.1
70 30
4
80
3 20

2 90 10
1
0
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

Olivine 2 Orthopyroxene:1 Clinopyroxene

SiO2/MgO in Coarse Fraction
 East Block Coarse Fraction of -1" SSP IN STOCKPILE E1 B
APRIL 23 - 29, MAY 13 - 19, 2002
15
14 +3"-6"
Serpentine
13 +1" -3"
% Loss on Ignition in Coarse Fraction

10
12 90
11 20
80
10 30
70
9
40 % Serpentine
8 60
% Olivine
7 50
50
6 60 Orthopyroxene S/M = 1.7
40
5 Clinopyroxene S/M = 3.1
70 30
4
3 80
20

2 90 10
1
0
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

Olivine SiO2/MgO in Coarse Fraction 2 Orthopyroxene:1 Clinopyroxene

 Historic Nickel Production at
Sorowako
180
4 Years
160
150 M lbs
140
16 Years
120
Mlbs nickel production

100 100 M lbs

80

60

40

20

0
1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
Production period
 EXERCISE

Vale Inco Exploration

 EXERCISE

What are the best conditions for the

development of a thick, high-grade,
nickel laterite deposit?

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