Heat and Mass Transfer

Course level: undergraduate

Course Code: ChEg2084
Credit hour: 3

Lecturer: bisrat yihun

Email: [email protected]
Mobile phone: 09-41-96-40-16
March, 2022
 Chapter two
Steady State Conduction

Steady versus Transient(unsteady) Heat Transfer

• Steady implies no change

with time at any point within
the medium
• Transient implies variation
with time or time
dependence
Example. The cooling of an apple in a refrigerator
• In the special case of
variation with time but not
with position, the
temperature of the medium
changes uniformly with
time. Such heat transfer
systems are called lumped
systems.
 Coordinate system of different geometries

• Temperature distribution In a medium expressed by

Position and
time
• Three prime coordinate systems:
 rectangular T(x, y, z, t)
 cylindrical T(r, , z, t)
 spherical T(r, , , t).
 Multidimensional Heat Transfer

• Heat transfer problems are also classified as being:

one-dimensional
two dimensional
three-dimensional

• In the most general case, heat transfer through a medium is three dimensional. However, some problems can be classified as two- or
one-dimensional depending on the relative magnitudes of heat
transfer rates in different directions and the level of accuracy desired.
One-dimensional
if the temperature in the medium varies in one direction only and thus heat is transferred in one direction, and the
variation of temperature and thus heat transfer in other directions are
negligible or zero. Example egg dropped into boiling water

Two-dimensional
if the temperature in a medium, in some cases, varies mainly in two primary directions, and the variation of temperature in the third
direction (and thus heat transfer in that direction) is negligible.
2.1.1 Heat conduction equation for rectangular, cylindrical & spherical coordinates,
conduction with internal heat generation

Heat conduction equation for rectangular

• The conduction heat rates perpendicular to each of the control surfaces at the x-, y-, and z-
coordinate locations are indicated by the terms qx, qy, and qz, respectively.
• The conduction heat rates at the opposite surfaces can then be expressed as a Taylor series
expansion where, neglecting higher-order terms,
 ……………1

The energy balance yields

, where: , , ,
substituting Equations

substituting Equations
Therefore states that at any point in the medium the net rate of energy transfer by conduction into a unit
volume plus the volumetric rate of thermal energy generation must equal the rate of change of thermal
energy stored within the volume.
If the thermal conductivity is constant, the heat equation is
Heat conduction equation for cylindrical coordinate
• The heat equation may also be expressed in cylindrical and spherical coordinates

• the general form of the heat flux vector and hence of Fourier’s law is
• heat flux components in the radial, circumferential, and axial directions, respectively.
Applying an energy balance to the differential control volume of Figure, the
following general form of the heat equation is obtained:

Heat conduction equation for Spherical Coordinates

• In spherical coordinates, the general form of the heat flux vector and Fourier’s law is

• are heat flux components in the radial, polar, and azimuthal directions, respectively. Applying an
energy balance to the differential control volume of Figure 2.13, the following
general form of the heat equation is obtained:
 Boundary and Initial Conditions
To determine the temperature distribution in a medium, it is necessary to solve the appropriate form of the heat
equation
such a solution depends on
a) the physical conditions existing at the boundaries of the medium
b) initial time, if the situation is time dependent
Boundary conditions
The mathematical expressions of the thermal conditions at the boundaries
 Because the heat equation is second order in the spatial coordinates, two boundary
conditions must be expressed for each coordinate needed to describe the system.
 Two boundary conditions for one-dimensional
problems,
 four boundary conditions for two-dimensional problems, and
 Six boundary conditions for three-dimensional problems.
The condition corresponds to a situation for which the surface is maintained at :
 a fixed temperature TS
 a fixed or constant heat flux at the surface
This heat flux is related to the temperature gradient at the surface by Fourier’s law

Initial condition
The temperature at any point on the wall at a specified time also depends on the condition of the wall at
the beginning of the heat conduction process. Such a condition, which is usually specified at time t= 0
 In rectangular coordinates, the initial condition can be specified in the general form as

where the function f(x, y, z) represents the temperature distribution throughout

the medium at time t =0.
Boundary conditions for the heat diffusion equation at the surface (x =0)
 One-dimensional Steady State Conduction
The system is characterized by steady-state conditions if the temperature at each point is independent of
time
Heat flow through rectangular(plane wall) systems
Assume : one-dimensional, steady state and no heat generation
….general rectangular heat conduction equation

Temperature distribution
The temperature distribution in the wall can be determined by solving the heat equation
with the proper boundary conditions
 For steady-state conditions with no distributed source or sink of energy within the wall, the appropriate form
of the heat equation is

………. implies the heat flux is a constant in the direction of transfer.

• If the thermal conductivity of the wall material is assumed to be constant, the equation may be
integrated twice to obtain the general solution

To obtain the constants of integration, C1 and C2 , boundary conditions must be introduced. We choose to
1 2

apply conditions of the first kind at x =0 and x =L, in which case

Applying the condition at x =0 to the general solution, it follows that

Now that we have the temperature distribution, we may use Fourier’s law, Equation, to determine the
conduction
heat transfer rate heat flux,

Example 1
Consider a large plane wall of thickness L= 0.2 m, thermal conductivity k =1.2 W/m · °C, and surface area A
=15 m . The two sides of the wall are maintained at constant temperatures of T1= 120°C and T2 =50°C,
2

respectively, as shown in Figure. Determine (a) the variation of temperature within the wall and the value of
temperature at x= 0.1 m and (b) the rate of heat conduction through the wall under steady conditions.
Thermal Resistance in plane wall
In particular, an analogy exists between the diffusion of heat and electrical charge. Just as an electrical
resistance is associated with the conduction of electricity, a thermal resistance may be associated with the
conduction of heat.
Defining resistance as the ratio of a driving potential to the corresponding transfer rate.

The thermal resistance for conduction in a plane wall is

Similarly, for electrical conduction in the same system,

Ohm’s law provides an electrical
resistance of the form

convection thermal resistance.

From Newton’s law of cooling,
• A thermal resistance for radiation may be defined
• where,

• Since qx is constant throughout the network, Under steady conditions we have

 The Composite Wall

Equivalent thermal circuits may also be used for more complex systems, such as composite walls.
 Such walls may involve any number of series and parallel thermal resistances due to layers of different materials .
Consider the series composite wall of Figure
The one-dimensional heat transfer rate for this system may be expressed as
Composite walls may also be characterized by series–parallel configurations, such as that
shown in Figure
 Radial Systems

Cylindrical and spherical systems often experience temperature gradients in the radial
direction only and may therefore be treated as one-dimensional
The Cylinder
Assume : one-dimensional, steady state and no heat generation
heat equation, Equation
By applying appropriate boundary conditions the temperature distribution in the cylinder
solved as
used with Fourier’s law, we obtain the following expression for the heat transfer rate:

From this result it is evident that, for radial conduction in a cylindrical wall, the
thermal resistance is of the form

composite cylinder system

The foregoing result may also be expressed in terms of an overall heat transfer
coefficient.That is,
The Sphere

Now consider applying the alternative method to analyzing conduction in the

hollow sphere

for steady-state, one-dimensional conditions with no heat generation. The

appropriate form of Fourier’s law is
Acknowledging that q is a constant, independent of r, above Equation may be expressed
r

in the integral form

Remembering that the thermal resistance is defined as the temperature difference divided
by the heat transfer rate, we obtain
or you can drive from this equation
Example 2
Consider a 0.8-m-high and 1.5-m-wide glass window
with a thickness of 8 mm and a thermal conductivity
of k =0.78 W/m · °C. Determine the steady rate of
heat transfer through this glass window and the
temperature of its inner surface for a day during which
the room is maintained at 20°C while the temperature
of the outdoors is -10°C. Take the heat transfer
coefficients on the inner and outer surfaces of the
window to be h1 =10 W/m · °C and h2 =40 W/m · °C,
2

which includes the effects of radiation.

Example 3
Consider a 0.8-m-high and 1.5-m-wide double-pane
window consisting of two 4-mm-thick layers of glass
(k = 0.78 W/m · °C) separated by a 10-mm-wide
stagnant air space (k = 0.026 W/m · °C). Determine
the steady rate of heat transfer through this double-
pane window and the temperature of its inner surface
for a day during which the room is maintained at
20°C while the temperature of the outdoors is -10°C.
Take the convection heat transfer coefficients on the
inner and outer surfaces of the window to be h1 = 10
W/m2 · °C and h2 = 40 W/m2 · °C, which includes
the effects of radiation.
Example 4
Steam at T∞1=320°C flows in a cast iron pipe (k 80
W/m · °C) whose inner and outer diameters are D1
=5 cm and D2= 5.5 cm, respectively. The pipe is
covered with 3-cm-thick glass wool insulation with k
=0.05 W/m · °C. Heat is lost to the surroundings at
T∞2 = 5°C by natural convection and radiation, with
a combined heat transfer coefficient of h2 = 18 W/m2
· °C. Taking the heat transfer coefficient inside the
pipe to be h1 =60 W/m2 · °C, determine the rate of
heat loss from the steam per unit length of the pipe.
Also determine the temperature drops across the pipe
shell and the insulation.
 Heat transfer from extended surfaces
• The term extended surface is commonly used to depict an important
special case involving heat transfer by conduction within a solid and heat
transfer by convection (and/or radiation) from the boundaries of the solid.
• The alternative is to increase the surface area by attaching to the surface
extended surfaces called fins made of highly conductive materials such as
aluminum.
• Finned surfaces are manufactured by extruding, welding, or wrapping a
thin metal sheet on a surface.
• Fins enhance heat transfer from a surface by exposing a larger surface
area to convection and radiation.
Different fin configurations
Different fin configurations are illustrated in Figure .
A straight fin is any extended surface that is attached to a plane wall. It may be of uniform cross-
sectional area, or its cross-sectional area may vary with the distance x from the wall.
An annular fin is one that is circumferentially attached to a cylinder, and its cross section varies with
radius from the wall of the cylinder.
Heat transfer rate equation associated with a fin
we must first obtain the temperature
distribution along the fin.
ASSUME
 temperature is uniform across the fin
thickness, that is, it is only a function of x.
steady-state conditions
thermal conductivity is constant
 radiation from the surface is negligible
heat generation effects are absent
convection heat transfer coefficient h is
uniform over the surface.
Applying the conservation of energy requirement to the differential element of Figure, we obtain

From Fourier’s law we know that

where Ac is the cross-sectional area, which may vary with x. Since the conduction heat rate at x + dx may be expressed as

it follows that

The convection heat transfer rate may be expressed as

where dAs is the surface area of the differential element. Substituting the foregoing rate equations into the energy balance,

This result provides a general form of the energy equation for an

extended surface

Fins of Uniform Cross-Sectional Area

We begin with the simplest case of straight rectangular and pin fins of uniform cross section Figure
Each fin is attached to a base surface of temperature T(0) = Tb and extends into a fluid of
temperature T.
Equation is a linear, homogeneous, second-order differential equation with constant coefficients. Its general
solution is of the form

To evaluate the constants C1 and C2 of Equation, it is necessary to specify appropriate boundary conditions. One
such condition may be specified in terms of the temperature at the base of the fin (x =0)

The second condition, specified at the fin tip (x = L), may correspond to one of four different
physical situations.
The first condition, Case A,
considers convection heat transfer from the fin tip. Applying an energy balance to a control surface about this tip
(Figure), we obtain
• That is, the rate at which energy is transferred to the fluid by convection from the tip must
equal the rate at which energy reaches the tip by conduction through the fin. Substituting
Equation

We are particularly interested in the amount of heat transferred from the entire fin
The second tip condition, Case B,
corresponds to the assumption that the convective heat loss from the fin tip is negligible, in which case the tip
may be treated as adiabatic and

Substituting from Equation and dividing by m, we then obtain

Using this expression with Equation to solve for C1 and C2 and substituting the results into Equation, we obtain

Using this temperature distribution with Equation 3.76, the fin heat transfer rate is then
 Example
Consider a very long rectangular fin
attached to a flat surface such that the
temperature at the end of the fin is
essentially that of the surrounding air i.e
20ºc. Its width is 5.0 cm; thickness is 1.0
mm; thermal conductivity is 200w/m.k; and
base temperature is 40ºc. The heat transfer
coefficient is 20 w/m2.k. estimate the fin
temperature at a distance of 5.0 cm from the
base and the rate of heat loss from the entire
fin.
 Two-dimensional Steady State conduction
For two-dimensional, steady-state conditions with no generation and constant thermal
conductivity, the equation below

Simplified to:

• Methods for solving steady state two -dimensional equation include:

Analytical( separation of variables)
graphical, and
numerical (finite-difference, finite-element, or boundary-element) approaches.
The Method of Separation of Variables
• To understand how the method of separation of variables used to solve two-dimensional conduction
problems, we consider the system of Figure.
Assuming
• Negligible heat transfer from the surfaces of the plate or the ends of the rod,
• Temperature gradients normal to the x–y plane may be neglected (∂2T/∂z2)≈0 and
• Conduction heat transfer is primarily in the x- and y-directions.
We are interested in the temperature distribution T(x, y), but to simplify the solution we introduce the
transformation

Substituting gives
For the complete solution of the above PDE two boundary conditions are required for each
of the coordinates and these are

Because of the transformation, the BC’s have been

restricted to 0’s and 1.
The method of separation of variables assumes a product solution of the form
• Indeed the differential equation is separable. Another observation is that the left hand side
expression is only a function of x and the right one only a function of y. The equality can
be satisfied only if the expression is independent of x and y. Only a constant can satisfy
this condition. Let this constant be λ2. This makes the equation
Applying boundary conditions:
I. First boundary condition

II. Second boundary condition

III. Third boundary condition

iv. Fouth boundary condition
 Numerical methods of analysis

WHY NUMERICAL METHODS?

we solved various heat conduction problems in various geometries in a systematic
but highly mathematical manner by
(1) deriving the governing differential equation by performing an energy balance on
a differential volume element,
(2) (2) expressing the boundary conditions in the proper
mathematical form, and
(3) (3) solving the differential equation and applying the
boundary conditions to determine the integration constants.
This resulted in a solution function for the temperature distribution in the medium,
and the solution obtained in this manner is called the analytical solution of the
problem.