Applications of Leveling

Applications of leveling
• Contouring,
•
• Profile and cross section leveling;

• Earthwork computations (areas, volumes and the mass haul diagram)

Contouring
 Introduction
 Chain surveying, is one of the various methods employed for
plotting physical features of the area; such as buildings, roads,
etc in their correct relative positions on a horizontal plane.

 These features plotted do not form a complete map unless the

relief of the ground is also shown in the map.
 Introduction

 A good map should represent the vertical dimensions accurately as

it represents the horizontal dimension.

 One of the methods of representing this relief is a contour

 What
is
Contour??
 What is contour
 Contour
Are imaginary line on the ground surface joining the points of equal elevation

Contour survey is carried out at the starting of any engineering project such as
a road, a railway, a canal, a dam, a building etc:
 “Real World”

Contouring:
The process of tracing
contour lines on the surface Contour Map
of the earth is called
Contouring.

Contour Map
 Purpose of contouring
i. For preparing contour maps in order to select the most economical or suitable
site.

ii. For getting information about the ground whether it is flat, undulating or
mountainous.

iii. To locate the physical features of the ground such as a pond depression, hill,
steep or small slopes.
 Contour Interval
Contour interval:
 The vertical distance between two successive contours
 The difference in elevation between each line MUST be equal spacing.

what is Contour interval?

= 20 m
Index Contour:
Usually every 5th line is printed darker and has an elevation
printed on it.

Index Contour
Factors which Contour Interval depends
1) The Nature of the Ground:
 In flat and uniformly sloping country, the contour interval is small

But

 In broken and mountainous region the contour interval should be large

otherwise the contours will come too close to each other.
 Factors which Contour Interval depends
2) The Purpose and extent of the survey:
 Contour interval is small if the area to be surveyed is small and the
maps are required to be used for the design work or for determining the
quantities of earth work etc. while
 Wider interval shall have to be kept for large areas and comparatively less
important works.
 Factors which Contour Interval depends
3) The Scale of the Map:
The contour interval should be in the inverse ratio to the scale of the map i.e.
the smaller the scale, the greater is the contour interval.

4) Time and Expense of Field and Office work:

The smaller the interval, the greater is the amount of field-work and plotting
work.
 Common values of the contour interval
The following are the common values of the contour interval adopted for various
purposes:-
i) For large scale maps of flat ground, for building sites, for detailed design work and for
calculation of quantities of earth work;
0.2 to 0.5 m.
ii) For reservoirs and town planning schemes;
0.5 to 2m.
 Common values of the contour interval
iii. For location surveys.

2 to 3m.

iv. For small scale maps of broken ground and general topographic work;

3m,5m,10m,or 25m.
 Characteristics of contours
1) All points in a contour line have the same elevation.
 Characteristics of contours Contn..
2) Flat ground is indicated where the contours are widely separated and
steep- slope where the contour run close together.
 Characteristics of contours Contn..
3. A uniform/gentle slope is indicated when the
contour lines are uniformly spaced
 Characteristics of contours Contn..
4) A series of closed 80
contour lines on 75
the map represent
70
a hill , if the
65
higher values are HILL
inside 60
60
65
70
75
80

A HILL
 Characteristics of contours Contn..
80

75

70
DEPRESSION
v) A series of closed
contour lines on 65
the map indicate a 60
depression if the
higher values are
outside 70
60
65
70
75
80

A DEPRESSION
 Characteristics of contours Contn..
vi) Contour line cross ridge or valley line at right angles.
100

90

If the higher values are

80
inside the bend or loop in
70
the contour, it indicates a
60 Ridge.
50

RIDGE LINE
 U shapes and ridge
A series of U shapes
indicates a ridge. The
U shapes will point to
lower elevation.
 Characteristics of contours Contn..
vii) Contour line cross ridge or valley line at right angles.

If the higher
100
values are
90 outside the bend,
80 it represents a
Valley
70

60

50

VALLEY LINE
 Valleys and higher elevation

A series of V-shapes
indicates a valley and the
V’s point to higher
elevation.
Characteristics of contours Contn..

vii) Contours cannot end

anywhere but close on
themselves either within or
outside the limits of the map
Characteristics of contours Contn..
VIII) Contour lines cannot
merge or cross one another
on map
 Characteristics of contours Contn..

iX) Depressions between

summits is called a
saddle. It is represented
70 SADDLE 70
by four sets of contours as 80 80
shown. It represents a dip 90 90
in a ridge or the junction 90
of two ridges. And in the 100
110
case of a mountain
range ,it takes the form of
Line passing through the saddles and
a pass .
summits gives water shed line.
Methods of contouring
 Methods of contouring
There are mainly two methods of locating contours:-

(1)Direct Method and

(2) Indirect Method.

 (1) Direct Method

 The contours to be located are directly traced out in the field by

locating and marking a number of points on each contour.

 These points are then surveyed and plotted on plan and the
contours drawn through
Direct Method
Example:
If the height of instrument is B.M
82
82.48m., then the staff readings 81
required to locate 82, 81 and 80m
80
contours respectively. The staff is
held on an approximate position
of point and then moved up and
own the slope until the desired
reading is obtained. The point is DIRECT METHOD
OF CONTOURING
marked with a peg.
 (2) Indirect Method
This method is based on the assumption that the ground is uniformly sloping
between two points whose spot levels are to be taken.

 Spot levels of various points, which are easily accessible by the staff man
are taken

 Their positions are then plotted on the plan and the contours drawn by
interpolation.
 Indirect Method
The method is done in one of the following methods.
i. Locating contours by grid lines - By Squares

ii. Locating contour by cross-section.

iii. Radiating lines.

iv. Tacheometric method

By Squares.
 In this method, the whole area is divided into number of squares,

 The side of which may vary from 5m to 30m depending upon the nature of
the ground and the contour interval.

 The square need not be of the same size throughout.

 Procedures for Square Method
1) The corners of the 2) the reduced levels of these points
squares are pegged out are determined with a level.
a level.
100.4 97.60 96.05 94.40
13 14 15 16

97.45 99.25 98.75 99.40

9 10 11 12

98.65 99.60 97.80 89.55

5 6 7 8

100.90 99.70 99.85 98.45

1 2 3 4
SQURES LAID ON GROUND Reduced Levels
 Procedures for Square Method

3) The squares are

plotted and the reduced
levels of the corners are 100.4 97.60 96.05 94.40

written on the plan.

97.45 99.25 98.75 99.40

98.65 99.60 97.80 89.55

100.90 99.70 99.85 98.45

 Procedures for Square Method

4) Their positions
(squares) are then
100.4 97.60 96.05 94.40
plotted on the plan and
the contours drawn by 98.00 98.00
interpolation at a 98,00
97.45 99.25 98.75 99.40
suitable scale
(horizontal and vertical)
98.65 99.60 97.80 89.55

N.B: 50m on the ground 98.0

99.0 99.0

100.90 99.70 99.85 98.45

 Interpolation of contours:
• Interpolation is the process of locating in plan or map
any required level along a line joining two known
levels.

• The interpolation of contours is based on the

assumption that the ground is uniformly sloping
between two points whose spot levels have been
taken.
 Interpolation of contours:
Mathematically Interpolation method
• The positions of the contours are interpolated
mathematically from the reduced levels by simple
proportions.
 Interpolation of contours:
Consider diagram below
A and B with reduced level 90.7
and 92.5

e.g. a 92m contour passes some where between

stations A and B respectively.
Horizontal distance between A and B =D
 Interpolation of contours:
The location of the 92m contour is calculated as follows

Difference in level between A and B = h2 =92.5 - 90.7=1.8m

Difference in level between station A and the 92m contour

= h1= 92 - 90.7=1.3m
 Interpolation of contours:
Therefore: Horizontal distance (d) from A to the 92 contour is
calculated as,

h1 xD 92  90.7 1.3
d   x 20  x 20  14.4
h2 92.5.90.7 1 .8
 Plotting
Plotting by Scaling
The positions of contours are located by scaling between the known
levels using the distance calculated
 USES OF CONTOUR MAP
i. A contour map furnishes information regarding the
features of the ground , whether it is flat, undulating
or mountainous.

ii. From a contour map , sections may be easily drawn in

any direction

iii. Intervisibility between two ground points plotted on

map can be ascertained
 USES OF CONTOUR MAP
iv. It enables an engineer to approximately select the most
economical or suitable site for an engineering project such as a
road, a railway, a canal or a pipe line etc.

v. A route of a given grade can be traced on the map.

vi. Catchment area and capacity of a reservoir may be determined

from the contour map.

vii. Contour map may be used to determine the quantities of earth

work.