CHAPTER 1 VARIATIONS IN

PSYCHOLOGICAL
ATTRIBUTES
 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

DISTINCTIVENESS + VARIATIONS

CHARACTERISTICS BEHAVIORAL PATTERNS

SITUATIONISM
SITUATIONS + CIRCUMSTANCES

INFLUENCE

BEHAVIOR
 SITUATIONIST PERSPECTIVE
• Views human behaviour relatively more as a
result of influence of external factors.
ASSESSMENT
• Understanding+ Measurement+
Evaluation of Psychological Attributes.
• S- Standardized
FORMAL • O- Objective
• O- Organized

• Subjective
INFORMAL
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

Uses systematic
testing procedures
to evaluate

A- abilities,

B- behaviours,
and

P- personal
qualities of
individuals.
DOMAINS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL
ATTRIBUTES
Intelligence: global
capacity to understand the
world, think rationally &
use available resources
effectively when faced with
challenges.

Aptitude: individual’s
underlying potential for
acquiring skills after
training.
 Interest: is an individual’s
preference for engaging in one or
more specific activities relative to
others.

Personality: refers to relatively

enduring (permanent)
characteristics of a person that
make her or him different from
others.

Values: are enduring beliefs about

an ideal mode of behaviour.
ASSESSMENT METHODS
Psychological Test: is an
objective (unbiased)+
standardized (uniform)
measure of an individual’s-
mental & behavioural
characteristics.

Interview: seeking
information on one-
to-one basis.
 Case Study: in-depth study of the
individual in terms of her/his
psychological attributes,
psychological history in the context of
her/his environment.

Observation: involves using

S-systematic,

O-organised &

O- objective procedures

to record behaviors occurring

naturally in real time.
 Self-report: in
which a person
provides factual
(honest)
information about
herself/himself
and/or opinions,
beliefs etc.
 INTELLIGENCE
PSYCHOLOGISTS DEFINITIONS

Oxford dictionary Intelligence as the power of perceiving +learning +

understanding + knowing.

Alfred Binet the ability to judge well + understand well + reason

well.

Wechsler the global and aggregate (collective) capacity to

think rationally, act purposefully, and to deal
effectively with her/his environment

Howard Gardener Intelligence is not a single entity; rather different

types of intelligences exist.

Robert Sternberg “the ability to adapt, to shape & select environment

to achieve one’s goals and those of one’s society &
culture”.
 APPROACHES TO STUDY
INTELLIGENCE
PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACH INFORMATION-PROCESSING
APPROACH
 It considers intelligence as an  It describes processes people use in
aggregate (combination)of intellectual reasoning and problem
abilities. solving.

 It expresses the individual’s  Describes how people engage in

performance in terms of a problem
single score of cognitive solving and learning.
abilities.

 Example- Alfred Binet’s Uni  Example- Sternberg’s triarchic theory

factor theory of intelligence. of intelligence, PASS Model, etc.
 THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

1. BINET’S
UNI • Intelligence consists of one similar
FACTOR set of abilities that can be used for
THEORY solving any or every problem.
1905

2. TWO-
• g factor - general factor includes primary
FACTOR mental processes common to all
THEORY BY performances.
CHARLES • s factor- specific factor. Athletes, architects,
singers have the specific abilities that allow
SPEARMAN, them to excel in their own domains.
1927
 • Intelligence consists of seven
independent primary (main) mental
abilities. These are:
• Verbal Comprehension (grasping
meaning of words, concepts, ideas).
3. THEORY OF • Numerical Abilities (speed and
PRIMARY accuracy in computational skills).
• Spatial Relations (visualizing patterns
MENTAL and forms).
ABILITIES BY • Perceptual Speed (speed in perceiving
LOUIS details).
• Word Fluency (using words fluently
THURSTONE and flexibly).
• Memory (accuracy in recalling
information).
• Inductive Reasoning (deriving general
rules from presented facts).
 4. HIERARICHIAL MODEL OF
INTELLIGENCE by ARTHUR JENSON

LEVEL I
Associative learning:
Input is similar to
output. Eg- Rote learning

LEVEL II
Cognitive
Competence: requires
higher order skills.
Eg- Creativity
5. STRUCTURE OF Guilford proposed a model that
INTELLECT MODEL- J.P. classifies intellectual traits
GUILFORD among three dimensions.

Operation x Content x
Products- 6 x 5 x 6 =
180 cells.

Operations- what
Products- refer to
the respondent Contents-
the form in which
does. Eg- cognition, information on which
information is
memory recording, intellectual processes
processed by the
memory retention, are performed. Eg-
respondent. Eg-
divergent visual, auditory,
units, classes,
production, symbolic, semantic and
relations, systems and
convergent behavioral.
transformation.
production.
 6. THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE by
HOWARD GARDNER
INTELLIGENCE DEFINITION EXAMPLES

1. LINGUISTIC Skills involved in production & Poets and Writers

use of language.

2. LOGICAL- Skills in scientific + critical Scientists,

MATHEMATICAL thinking & problem Mathematicians
solving.

3. SPATIAL Skills in forming visual images & Interior decorator,

patterns. surgeons, architects

4. MUSICAL Understanding of musical Musicians

rhythms & patterns.
 6. THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE by
HOWARD GARDNER
INTELLIGENCE DEFINITION EXAMPLES

5. BODILY- Using body portions flexibly & Athletes, dancers,

KINESTHETIC creatively. Sportspersons.

6. Understanding of the other’s Psychologists,

INTERPERSONAL behavior & emotions. Counselors.

7. Awareness about one’s own Philosophers,

INTERAPERSONAL feelings, behavior & motives. Spiritual Leaders

8. NATURALISTIC Sensitivity to the features of Hunters, farmers,

the natural world. tourists.
 7. TRIARCHIC THEORY by ROBERT
STERNBERG
TRIARCHIC THEORY

COMPONENTIAL EXPERIENTIAL/CREATIVE CONTEXTUAL/PRACTICAL

Use of past Ability to deal and

Analysis of
experiences adapt to everyday
information to solve
creatively to solve life. Street Smartness
problems.
problems. or Business Sense

KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION: Learning and acquisition of ways of doing things.

METACOMPONENT: Planning- What to do & how to do ?
PERFORMANCE COMPONENT: Actually doing things.
 8. PASS MODEL OF INTELLIGENCE-

J.P Das, Jack

Naglieri, and Kirby
(1994)

Arousal/Attention: allow a person to process

information. An optimal (ideal) level of
arousal focuses our attention to the problem.
Intellectual activity
involves the
Simultaneous processing: means at the same
interdependent time. Eg- RSPM. Successive processing: means
functioning of following one another. Eg- poems, rhymes.
three
neurological
systems. Planning- It allows us to:
T-think of the possible courses of action
I- implement them &
E- evaluate their effectiveness.
Find it out?
______________________ is a
verbal & non-verbal test of
intelligence based on PASS
model.
 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN
INTELLIGENCE- ROLE OF NATURE &
NURTURE
 Role of Heredity/Genes/Nature
• The evidence comes from- studies on twins
& adopted children.
  IDENTICAL TWINS FRATERNAL TWINS

NATURE OF
REARED REARED REARED REARED
SIBLINGS
TOGETHER APART TOGETHER APART

CORRELATION +0.90 +0.72 0.60 0.50

Siblings reared apart correlate about 0.25.

 As you can see in
Adopted children
the above table the
have a similar
correlation for
intelligence
identical twins
level as their
reared together is
biological rather
higher as
than adoptive
compared to
parents.
fraternal twins.

This indicates that

genes/heredity plays an
important role in
influencing the intelligence
level of an individual.
ROLE OF ENVIRONMENT/NURTURE
Children of
disadvantaged families
adopted by rich families
tend to show increase in
intelligence scores.

This indicates
As children that nutrition,
grow their quality
intelligence schooling &
level moves good family
towards environment
adoptive increases
parents. intelligence.
CONCLUSION

Both
heredity/genes/nature
and
nurture/environment
play an important role
in determining child's
intelligence.
ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE

In 1905, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon, made the first attempt to
measure intelligence.

In 1908, they gave the concept of Mental Age (MA), which is a

measure of a person’s intellectual development in comparison to
people of her/his age group.

A mental age of 5 means that a child’s performance on an intelligence

test equals the average performance level of a group of 5-year olds.

Chronological Age (CA) is the biological age from birth.

ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE
IQ refers to mental age
In 1912, William divided by
Stern devised the chronological age and
concept of Intelligence multiplied by 100. IQ =
quotient.
MA/CA x 100
If MA <CA
Below
average
If MA > CA Intelligence
Superior
Intelligence
 CAN YOU ANSWER ?
• Find out the IQ of a 14-year-old child with a
mental age of 16. (114)
• Find out the mental age of a 12- year-old
child with an IQ of 90. (10.8)
NORMAL CURVE & IT’S IMPORTANCE IN
ASSESSING IQ
IQ scores are distributed in the
population in such a way that
the scores of most people
tend to fall in the middle
range of the distribution.

Only a few people have

either very high or very
low scores.

The frequency distribution

for the IQ scores tends to
approximate a bell-shaped
curve, called the normal
curve.
Symmetrical around
People with IQ scores
the central value,
in the range of 90–
called the mean. The
110 have normal
mean IQ score in a
intelligence.
population is 100.

IQ below 70 IQ above 130-

-‘Intellectual ‘Intellectually
Deficit’ Superior’
The normal curve helps us
to understand the %ge of
people with superior
intelligence, average
intelligence or
intellectually disabled.
VARIATIONS IN INTELLIGENCE-
INTELLECTUAL DEFICIT
The American
Association on
Mental Deficiency
(AAMD) views
intellectual
disability as:

“Significantly sub-average
general intellectual
functioning existing
concurrently (simultaneously)
with deficits in adaptive
behaviour and manifested
during the developmental
period”.
VARIATIONS IN INTELLIGENCE-
INTELLECTUAL Deficit

Basic Features A person must have IQ below 70.

Adaptive behaviour refers to a

person’s capacity to be independent
and deal effectively with one’s
environment.

Deficits must be observed during the

period between 0 & 18 years of age.
 There can be
categories of
Intellectual
Deficit-

Profound
Mild (IQ’s 55-
(IQ’s below
70),
20-25).

Severe Moderate (IQ’s

(IQ’s20-25) & 35-40),
Self-help Speech &
skills Communication

Academics Social Skills

Occupational
Adjustment
 INTELLECTUAL GIFTEDNESS
Even during infancy & early
childhood, they show larger
IQ 130 or more. attention span, preference for
newness & early appearance
of language skills.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
GIFTED STUDENTS
Advanced logical
Superior
thinking High speed in
processing generalization and
+questioning +
information. discrimination
problem solving
ability.
behaviour.
.

High level of Independent and

Advanced level of intrinsic
original & creative non-conformist
motivation and thinking.
thinking. self-esteem.

Preference for
solitary (alone)
academic
activities for
long periods.
 GIFTEDNESS & TALENT

TALENT GIFTEDNESS

 Talent is a narrower term  Giftedness is exceptional

and refers to remarkable general ability shown in
(outstanding) ability in a superior performance in a
specific field (e.g., spiritual, wide variety of areas.
social, aesthetic, etc.). The
highly talented are
sometimes called
‘prodigies’. (geniuses)

Giftedness depends on a combination of high ability +creativity +

commitment.
 TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS
INDIVIDUAL GROUP
• Administered to one person • Administered to several
at a time. persons simultaneously.

• Rapport Formation is • Do not allow an opportunity to

important. be familiar with the subjects’
feelings.

• Allow people to answer • Seek written answers usually

orally, written form or in a multiple-choice format.
manipulate objects as per the
tester’s instructions.

• WAIS an WISC
 TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS
VERBAL NON-VERBAL PERFORMANCE
• Require • Non-verbal tests • Respondents are required to
participants to give use pictures or manipulate objects to
verbal responses illustrations as perform a task.
either orally or in a test items.
written form.

• The participant • Literacy is not • Can be easily administered

needs to be required. to persons from different
literate. cultures.
• Example: Wechsler • Example: • Example-Kohs’ Block Design
Intelligence Scale Raven's Test and WAIS & WISC.
for Children Progressive
(WISC), Wechsler Matrices.
Adult Intelligence
Scale. (WAIS).
 TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS
CULTURE-FAIR TEST CULTURE-BIASED TEST
• Tests that do not discriminate • The test developed in a particular
against individuals belonging to country/region may have norms
different cultures. that can only be used for that
particular country.

• Although it’s very difficult to • If a culture biased intelligence

design such a test. In culture- test is used for a different
fair tests items are constructed population it may yield biased
in a manner that they results.
measure experiences
common to all cultures or
have questions in which
language usage is not
required.

• Non-verbal and performance • Example- WAIS with USA norms

tests help reduce the cultural if administered on Indian
bias usually associated with population.
verbal tests.
INTELLIGENCE TESTING IN INDIA

S.M. Mohsin made a pioneering attempt in constructing an

intelligence test in Hindi in the 1930’s.

C.H. Rice attempted to standardise the Binet’s test in Urdu and

Punjabi.

Mahalanobis attempted to standardise Binet’s test in Bengali.

Attempts were also made by Indian Researchers to develop

Indian norms for some western tests including RPM, WAIS,
Cube Construction and Kohs’ Block Design.
 TESTS EXAMPLES

VERBAL

MALIN’S INTELLIGENCE SCALE

FOR INDIAN CHILDREN (MISIC)
PERFORMANCE
• Culture?
• Western culture (Individualistic) and eastern
culture (collectivistic)?
• "samaaj kya sochega" vs "hum kya sochte hai”
• Individualistic culture- success? Failure?
 CULTURE & INTELLIGENCE
• Culture is a collective system of customs,
beliefs, attitudes & achievements in art &
literature.

According to Vygotsky, while

basic mental functions are
universal, the manner in Sternberg’s notion of
which higher mental contextual implies that
functions ( problem solving intelligence is a product of
& thinking) function are culture.
largely culture-produced.
 TECHNOLOGICAL INTELLIGENCE INTEGRAL INTELLIGENCE

• Technologically advanced • It gives emphasis on connectivity

societies adopt child rearing with the social & world
practices that promote skills of environment.
generalization & abstraction,
speed, and mental
manipulation.

• In advanced societies, persons are • Indian thinkers view intelligence

well-versed in the skills of from a holistic perspective
attention, observation, analysis, where equal attention is paid to
performance, speed & cognitive & non-cognitive
achievement orientation. processes.

• For example- Intelligence tests • Intelligence in Indian tradition

developed in western cultures . can be termed as Integral
Intelligence.
 INTELLIGENCE IN INDIAN
TRADITION
• The Sanskrit word, ‘Buddhi’ comprises:

Mental efforts, feelings,

Skills
actions & opinions
BUDDHI
Knowledge,
Cognitive Competence discrimination &
understanding
INTELLIGENCE IN INDIAN TRADITION

Among other things,

buddhi is the
knowledge of one’s
own self based on
conscience
(principles/ethics),
will (determination)
and desire.

Thus, the notion of

buddhi has
affective(emotions)
+ motivational +
cognitive
components. (MAC)
• Indian tradition of intelligence recognizes
four important components:

Cognitive Social Emotional Entrepreneurial

• Sensitivity to • Respect for • Self- • Hard work,
context, social order, regulation, patience,
understandi concern honesty, persistence,
ng, about others, politeness, goal directed
discriminatio commitment good behavior.
n, problem to elders. conduct.
solving etc.
 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE*
According to
It is a set of Salovey and
skills that Mayer,
Emotional
underlie Intelligence, is Emotional
(cause) the ‘ability to Quotient is
accurate It is the monitor one’s
feeling side own and used to
appraisal express
(evaluation), of other’s
emotions, to Emotional
expression intelligence. discriminate
Intelligence.
& among them
and to use the
regulation information
of to guide one’s
emotions. thinking and
actions’.
 WHY IS EQ RECEIVING ATTENTION OF
EDUCATORS ?

Both EQ & IQ are equally important

for success in life.

Characteristics • Sensitive to your own feelings.

• Sensitive to the emotions of others by
of emotionally noting their body language tone, facial
intelligent expression.
• Managing one's emotions of anger, sadness
persons are: or irritation and taking wise decisions.
• Regulating one's emotion to live in
harmony with others.
• Relate your emotions to your thoughts so
that you take them in account while solving
problems and taking decisions.
CONCLUSION
Only good/high IQ is not important
for academic success. A person with
high IQ but low EQ may struggle at
work place or family.

It is important to note that even a

person with average IQ can be
successful if he/she has reasonably
good EQ.

A person identified with intellectual

deficit (mild/moderate or
profound) may also show deficits in
emotional intelligence.
 APTITUDE INTEREST
• It is a combination of • Interest is a preference for a
characteristics that indicates particular activity.
an individual’s capacity to
acquire some specific
knowledge or skill after
training.
• It helps in prediction of • It is a narrower term.
future performance. It is a
broader term.
• Assessment of Aptitude: • Assessment of interest -
David’s Battery of Differential Comprehensive interest and
Abilities: numerical ability, schedule (CIS) by Dr. Sanjay
verbal comprehension, Vohra helps students to make
mechanical, clerical, closure, right vocational choices.
spatial, psychomotor, and
reasoning.
CREATIVITY
• Creativity is the
ability to
produce ideas,
objects and
problem
solutions that are
novel and
appropriate.
 CREATIVITY & INTELLIGENCE

Terman (1920) found

that persons with high
IQ were not necessarily
creative.
Creative ideas could
come from persons who
did not have a very
high IQ.
Researchers have also
found that both high and
low level of creativity
can be found in highly
intelligent children and
also children of
average intelligence.
Intelligence,
therefore, by itself
does not ensure
creativity.
 All creative acts require
Researchers have found that
some. minimum ability to
the relationship between
acquire knowledge and
creativity and intelligence
capacity to comprehend,
is positive.
retain, and retrieve

Creative writers, for example,

need facility in dealing with
language. Hence, a certain level
of intelligence is required for
creativity but beyond that
intelligence does not correlate
well with creativity.
Creativity Tests Intelligence Tests
• Open- Ended • Can be closed ended
• Permit individuals to think • Permits individuals to think in
differently. one direction.
• Freedom to use imagination. • Focus on abilities like
• Involves Divergent Thinking. Convergent Thinking, logical
• Eg- Torrence test of creative reasoning, accuracy etc.
thinking, Baqer Mehdi • Eg. Raven's progressive
creativity test for children. Matrices, Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Test, Kohs’ Block
Design.
 WITHOUT
WORKING HARD
NO PERSON CAN BE
CALLED
INTELLIGENT.