Sets

Set
Operations

Discrete Mathematics and

Its Application
Basic Structures: Sets, Functions,
Sequences and Sums

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations

2.1: Sets

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Sets

Definition
A set is an unordered collection of objects, called elements
or members of the set. A set is said to contain its elements.
We use “a ∈ A” to denote that a is an element of the set
A. Likewise, we use “a /∈ A” to denote that a is not an
element of A.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Set-builder notation

Another way to describe a set is to use set-builder notation, which

characterizes the elements of a set by the property they must have
in order to be members.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Set-builder notation

Another way to describe a set is to use set-builder notation, which

characterizes the elements of a set by the property they must have
in order to be members.

Example
Q + = {x ∈ R | x =qp for positive integers p and q}

Discrete Mathematics
 Sets
Set
Operations
Sets

More examples of sets

N = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}, the set of natural
numbers.
Z = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . .}, the set of
integers.
Q = { pq | p ∈ Z, q ∈ Z, q }, the set of rational
Z + = {1, 2, 3, . . .}, the set of positive
nonzero
numbers.
integers.
R, the set of real
numbers.
R + , the set of positive real numbers.
C, the set of complex numbers.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Intervals

Definition
When a and b are real numbers with a < b, we write:
[a, b] = {x | a ≤ x ≤ b},
[a, b) = {x | a ≤ x < b},
(a, b] = {x | a < x ≤ b},
(a, b) = {x | a < x < b}.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Sets

Definition
Two sets are said to be equal when they have the same elements,
meaning that A and B are equal if and only if the sentence

∀x (x ∈ A ↔ x ∈

B) holds. We write A = B for this

sentence.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Sets

Definition
Two sets are said to be equal when they have the same elements,
meaning that A and B are equal if and only if the sentence

∀x (x ∈ A ↔ x ∈

B) holds. We write A = B for this

sentence.

Definition
There is a special set that contains no
elements. This set is called the empty set or the null set and is
denoted by ∅ or by { }.
Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics
 Sets
Set
Operations
Venn Diagrams
Example
A Venn diagram for the set of
vowels:

e u
V

i o

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Subsets

Definition
The set A is a subset of B if every element of A is also an element
of B. This is written symbolically as

∀x (x ∈ A → x ∈ B).

We use the notation A ⊆ B to indicate this relationship.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Subsets

Definition
The set A is a subset of B if every element of A is also an element
of B. This is written symbolically as

∀x (x ∈ A → x ∈ B).

We use the notation A ⊆ B to indicate this relationship.

Note
Note that to show that A is not a subset of B, we need only find
one element x ∈ A with x /∈ B. This element is a counterexample
to the claim that x ∈ A implies x ∈ B.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Subsets

“Subset” as a Venn
diagram

A B

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Subsets
Proper subsets
When we want to emphasize that A ⊆ B but B /= A, we write
A ⊂ B and say that A is a proper subset of B. For A ⊂ B to be
true, it must be the case that A ⊆ B yet there is an element of B
which is not an element of A.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Subsets
Proper subsets
When we want to emphasize that A ⊆ B but B /= A, we write
A ⊂ B and say that A is a proper subset of B. For A ⊂ B to be
true, it must be the case that A ⊆ B yet there is an element of B
which is not an element of A. In symbols,

∀x (x ∈ A → x ∈ B) ∧ ∃x (x ∈ B ∧ x /∈ A).

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Subsets
Proper subsets
When we want to emphasize that A ⊆ B but B /= A, we write
A ⊂ B and say that A is a proper subset of B. For A ⊂ B to be
true, it must be the case that A ⊆ B yet there is an element of B
which is not an element of A. In symbols,

∀x (x ∈ A → x ∈ B) ∧ ∃x (x ∈ B ∧ x /∈ A).

Double containment
A useful way to show that two sets are equal is to show that each
is a subset of the other. In other words, if we can show A ⊆ B and
B ⊆ A, then A = B.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Subsets
Proper subsets
When we want to emphasize that A ⊆ B but B /= A, we write
A ⊂ B and say that A is a proper subset of B. For A ⊂ B to be
true, it must be the case that A ⊆ B yet there is an element of B
which is not an element of A. In symbols,

∀x (x ∈ A → x ∈ B) ∧ ∃x (x ∈ B ∧ x /∈ A).

Double containment
A useful way to show that two sets are equal is to show that each
is a subset of the other. In other words, if we can show A ⊆ B and
B ⊆ A, then A = B. In symbols,

(∀x (x ∈ A ↔ x ∈ B))
↔ (∀x (x ∈ A → x ∈ B) ∧ ∀x (x ∈ B → x ∈ A)) .
Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics
 Sets
Set
Operations
Sets with other sets as
members

Sets may have other sets as members. For instance, consider

A = {∅, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}, B ={x | x is a subset of {a,

b}}.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Sets with other sets as
members

Sets may have other sets as members. For instance, consider

A = {∅, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}, B ={x | x is a subset of {a,

b}}.

Note that these sets are equal: A = B.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Sets with other sets as
members

Sets may have other sets as members. For instance, consider

A = {∅, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}, B ={x | x is a subset of {a,

b}}.

Note that these sets are equal: A = B. Note also that {a} is a
member of A, but a is not.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
The size of a
set

Definition
Let S be a set. If there are exactly n elements in S, where n is a
non-negative integer, then we say that S is a finite set and that n
is the cardinality of S, denoted by |S|.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
The size of a
set

Definition
Let S be a set. If there are exactly n elements in S, where n is a
non-negative integer, then we say that S is a finite set and that n
is the cardinality of S, denoted by |S|.

Definition
If S is not a finite set, then it is said to be infinite.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Power sets

Definition
Given a set S, the power set of S is the set of all the subsets of S.
It is denoted P(S).

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Cartesian products
Definition
The ordered n-tuple (a1, a2, . . . , an) is the ordered collection that
has a1 as its first element, a2 as its second element, . . . , and an as
its nth element. When n = 2, these are also called ordered pairs.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Cartesian products
Definition
The ordered n-tuple (a1, a2, . . . , an) is the ordered collection that
has a1 as its first element, a2 as its second element, . . . , and an as
its nth element. When n = 2, these are also called ordered pairs.

Equality
If (b1, . . . , bn) is another n-tuple, then these are said to be equal
when each of their terms is equal, i.e., when ai = bi for each choice
of i . Note that the pairs (x, y ) and (y, x ) are equal only if x =
y.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Cartesian products
Definition
The ordered n-tuple (a1, a2, . . . , an) is the ordered collection that
has a1 as its first element, a2 as its second element, . . . , and an as
its nth element. When n = 2, these are also called ordered pairs.

Equality
If (b1, . . . , bn) is another n-tuple, then these are said to be equal
when each of their terms is equal, i.e., when ai = bi for each choice
of i . Note that the pairs (x, y ) and (y, x ) are equal only if x =
y.

Definition
Let A and B be sets. Their Cartesian product, written A × B, is
the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) with a ∈ A and b ∈ B.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Cartesian products
Definition
The ordered n-tuple (a1, a2, . . . , an) is the ordered collection that
has a1 as its first element, a2 as its second element, . . . , and an as
its nth element. When n = 2, these are also called ordered pairs.

Equality
If (b1, . . . , bn) is another n-tuple, then these are said to be equal
when each of their terms is equal, i.e., when ai = bi for each choice
of i . Note that the pairs (x, y ) and (y, x ) are equal only if x =
y.

Definition
Let A and B be sets. Their Cartesian product, written A × B, is
the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) with a ∈ A and b ∈ B.

A ×Prof.
B Steven
= {(a,
Evansb) | Discrete
a ∈ AMathematics
∧ b ∈ B}.
 Sets
Set
Operations
Cartesian products

Definition
More generally, given sets A1 , A2 , . . . , An , their Cartesian product
is the set of n-tuples (a1, a2, . . . , an) with ai ∈ A i .

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Cartesian products

Definition
More generally, given sets A1 , A2 , . . . , An , their Cartesian product
is the set of n-tuples (a1, a2, . . . , an) with ai ∈ A i .

A1 × A2 × · · · × An = {(a1, a2, . . . , an) | ai ∈ A i for i =

1, 2, . . . , n}.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Cartesian products

Definition
More generally, given sets A1 , A2 , . . . , An , their Cartesian product
is the set of n-tuples (a1, a2, . . . , an) with ai ∈ A i .

A1 × A2 × · · · × An = {(a1, a2, . . . , an) | ai ∈ A i for i =

1, 2, . . . , n}.

Definition
A subset of the Cartesian product A × B is called a relation from
the set A to the set B.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Using set notation with quantifiers

Sometimes we restrict the domain of a quantified statement by

making use of set notation:

∀x ∈ S(P(x ))
∃x ∈ S(P(x ))

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Using set notation with quantifiers

Sometimes we restrict the domain of a quantified statement by

making use of set notation:

∀x ∈ S(P(x )) ≡ ∀x (x ∈ S → P(x )),

∃x ∈ S(P(x )) ≡ ∃x (x ∈ S ∧ P(x )).

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Truth sets and quantifiers

Definition
Given a predicate P and domain D, we define the truth set of P to
be the set of elements x in D for which P(x ) is true. This truth
set is denoted
{x ∈ D | P(x )}.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Truth sets and quantifiers

Definition
Given a predicate P and domain D, we define the truth set of P to
be the set of elements x in D for which P(x ) is true. This truth
set is denoted
{x ∈ D | P(x )}.

Example
What are the truth sets of P(x ), Q(x ), and R(x ), where
the domain is the set of integers and

P(x ) ≡ (|x | = 1)?

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Truth sets and quantifiers

Definition
Given a predicate P and domain D, we define the truth set of P to
be the set of elements x in D for which P(x ) is true. This truth
set is denoted
{x ∈ D | P(x )}.

Example
What are the truth sets of P(x ), Q(x ), and R(x ), where
the domain is the set of integers and

P(x ) ≡ (|x | = 1)?

Q(x ) ≡ (x 2 = 2)?

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Truth sets and quantifiers

Definition
Given a predicate P and domain D, we define the truth set of P to
be the set of elements x in D for which P(x ) is true. This truth
set is denoted
{x ∈ D | P(x )}.

Example
What are the truth sets of P(x ), Q(x ), and R(x ), where
the domain is the set of integers and

P(x ) ≡ (|x | = 1)?

Q(x ) ≡ (x 2 = 2)?
R(x ) ≡ (|x | = x )?

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations

2.2: Set Operations

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Basic operations

Union
Let A and B be sets. Their union, written A ∪ B, is the set that
contains those elements which are in A, in B, or in both.

A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B}.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Basic operations

Union
Let A and B be sets. Their union, written A ∪ B, is the set that
contains those elements which are in A, in B, or in both.

A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B}.

Intersection
Let A and B be sets. Their intersection, written A ∩ B, is the set
that contains those elements which are in both A and B.

A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B}.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Basic operations

A: A B

B: A B

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Basic operations

A: A B A∪ A B
B:

B: A B

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Basic operations

A: A B A∪ A B
B:

B: A B A∩ A B
B:

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Basic operations

Definition
Two sets are called disjoint if their intersection is the empty
set.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Basic operations

Definition
Two sets are called disjoint if their intersection is the empty set.

Cardinalities
We are often interested in finding the cardinality of the union of
two finite sets A and B. Note that |A| + |B| counts once each
element which is in A or B but the the other, while it counts twice
each element that appears in both A and B.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Basic operations

Definition
Two sets are called disjoint if their intersection is the empty set.

Cardinalities
We are often interested in finding the cardinality of the union of
two finite sets A and B. Note that |A| + |B| counts once each
element which is in A or B but the the other, while it counts twice
each element that appears in both A and B. Hence:

|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B|.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Basic operations

Difference
Let A and B be sets. The difference of A and B, denoted A \ B
(or sometimes A − B) is the set of elements of A which are
not elements of B.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Basic operations

Difference
Let A and B be sets. The difference of A and B, denoted A \ B
(or sometimes A − B) is the set of elements of A which are
not elements of B.

A \ B = {x | x ∈ A ∧ x /∈ B}.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Basic operations

Difference
Let A and B be sets. The difference of A and B, denoted A \ B
(or sometimes A − B) is the set of elements of A which are
not elements of B.

A \ B = {x | x ∈ A ∧ x /∈ B}.

Complement

Let U be the “universal set”. The complement of A, denoted A¯, is

the difference U \ A. An element x belongs to A¯if and only if
x /∈ A, hence: A¯ = {x ∈ U | x /∈
A}.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Basic operations

A\ A B
B:

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Basic operations

A\ A B A¯ A
B:
:

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Set identities

Identity laws:
A ∩U =
A,
A∪∅=
A.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Set identities

Identity laws:
A ∩ U = A,
A ∪ ∅ = A.
Domination
laws:
A ∪U
= U,
A∩∅
= ∅.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Set identities

Identity laws:
A ∩ U = A,
A ∪ ∅ = A.
Domination
laws:
A ∪U
= U,
A∩∅ =
∅. Idempotent
laws:
A∪A
= A, A ∩
A = A.
Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics
 Sets
Set
Operations
Set identities

Identity laws:
A ∩ U = A, Commutative laws:
A ∪ ∅ = A. A∪B =B∪
Domination A, A ∩ B = B
laws: ∩ A.
A ∪U
= U,
A∩∅ =
∅. Idempotent
laws:
A∪A
= A, A ∩
A = A.
Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics
 Sets
Set
Operations
Set identities

Identity laws:
A ∩ U = A, Commutative laws:
A ∪ ∅ = A. A∪B =B∪
Domination A, A ∩ B = B
laws: ∩ A.
A ∪U Associative laws:
= U, A ∪ (B ∪ C ) = (A
A∩∅ = ∪ B) ∪C,
∅. Idempotent A ∩ (B ∩ B) = (A
laws: ∩ B) ∩C.
A∪A
(A) = A.
= A, A ∩
A = A.
Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics
 Sets
Set
Operations
Set identities

Identity laws:
A ∩ U = A, Commutative laws:
A ∪ ∅ = A. A∪B =B∪
Domination A, A ∩ B = B
laws: ∩ A.
A ∪U Associative laws:
= U, A ∪ (B ∪ C ) = (A
A∩∅ = ∪ B) ∪C,
∅. Idempotent A ∩ (B ∩ B) = (A
laws: ∩ B) ∩C.
A∪A Distributive laws:
(A) = A.
= A, A ∩ A ∪ (B ∩ C ) = (A
∪ B) ∩ (A ∪
A = A.
Prof. Steven Evans C Discrete
), Mathematics
 Sets
Set
Operations
Set identities

De Morgan’s laws:
A∩B =A∪
B, A ∪ B = A
∩ B.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Set identities

De Morgan’s laws:
A∩B =A∪
B, A ∪ B = A
∩ B.
Absorption laws:
A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A, A
∩ (A ∪ B) = A.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Set identities

De Morgan’s laws:
A∩B =A∪
B, A ∪ B = A
∩ B.
Absorption laws:
A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A, A
∩ (A ∪ B) = A.
Complement laws:
A ∪ A = U,
A ∩ A = ∅.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Set identities
Example
Use set-builder notation and logical equivalences to establish the
first De Morgan law A ∩ B = A ∪ B.

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Set identities
Example
Use set-builder notation and logical equivalences to establish the
first De Morgan law A ∩ B = A ∪ B.

A ∩ B = {x | x /∈ A ∩ B }

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Set identities
Example
Use set-builder notation and logical equivalences to establish the
first De Morgan law A ∩ B = A ∪ B.

A ∩ B = {x | x /∈ A ∩ B }
= {x | ¬(x ∈ (A ∩ B))}

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Set identities
Example
Use set-builder notation and logical equivalences to establish the
first De Morgan law A ∩ B = A ∪ B.

A ∩ B = {x | x /∈ A ∩ B }
= {x | ¬(x ∈ (A ∩ B))}
= {x | ¬(x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B ) }

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Set identities
Example
Use set-builder notation and logical equivalences to establish the
first De Morgan law A ∩ B = A ∪ B.

A ∩ B = {x | x /∈ A ∩ B }
= {x | ¬(x ∈ (A ∩ B))}
= {x | ¬(x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B ) }
= {x | ¬(x ∈ A) ∨ ¬(x ∈ B ) }

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Set identities
Example
Use set-builder notation and logical equivalences to establish the
first De Morgan law A ∩ B = A ∪ B.

A ∩ B = {x | x /∈ A ∩ B }
= {x | ¬(x ∈ (A ∩ B))}
= {x | ¬(x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B ) }
= {x | ¬(x ∈ A) ∨ ¬(x ∈ B ) }
= {x | x /∈ A ∨ x /∈ B }

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Set identities
Example
Use set-builder notation and logical equivalences to establish the
first De Morgan law A ∩ B = A ∪ B.

A ∩ B = {x | x /∈ A ∩ B }
= {x | ¬(x ∈ (A ∩ B))}
= {x | ¬(x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B ) }
= {x | ¬(x ∈ A) ∨ ¬(x ∈ B ) }
= {x | x /∈ A ∨ x /∈ B }
= {x | x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B }

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Set identities
Example
Use set-builder notation and logical equivalences to establish the
first De Morgan law A ∩ B = A ∪ B.

A ∩ B = {x | x /∈ A ∩ B }
= {x | ¬(x ∈ (A ∩ B))}
= {x | ¬(x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B ) }
= {x | ¬(x ∈ A) ∨ ¬(x ∈ B ) }
= {x | x /∈ A ∨ x /∈ B }
= {x | x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B }
= {x | x ∈ A ∪ B }

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Set identities
Example
Use set-builder notation and logical equivalences to establish the
first De Morgan law A ∩ B = A ∪ B.

A ∩ B = {x | x /∈ A ∩ B }
= {x | ¬(x ∈ (A ∩ B))}
= {x | ¬(x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B ) }
= {x | ¬(x ∈ A) ∨ ¬(x ∈ B ) }
= {x | x /∈ A ∨ x /∈ B }
= {x | x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B }
= {x | x ∈ A ∪ B }
= A ∪ B.
Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics
 Sets
Set
Operations
Set identities
Example
Use a membership table to show

A ∩ (B ∪ C ) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩
C ).
A B C B ∪ C A ∩ (B ∪ C ) A ∩ B A ∩ C (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Set identities
Example
Use a membership table to show

A ∩ (B ∪ C ) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩
C ).
A B C B ∪ C A ∩ (B ∪ C ) A ∩ B A ∩ C (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩
C
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Set identities
Example
Use a membership table to show

A ∩ (B ∪ C ) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩
C ).
A B C B ∪ C A ∩ (B ∪ C ) A ∩ B A ∩ C (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Set identities
Example
Use a membership table to show

A ∩ (B ∪ C ) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩
C ).
A B C B ∪ C A ∩ (B ∪ C ) A ∩ B A ∩ C (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩
C
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Generalized unions and intersections

Because unions and intersections of sets satisfy associative laws,

the sets A ∪ B ∪ C and A ∩ B ∩ C are well defined; that is, the
meaning of this notation is unambiguous. Note that A ∪ B ∪ C
contains those elements that are in at least one of the sets A, B,
and C , and that A ∩ B ∩ C contains those elements that are in
all of A, B, and C .

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Generalized unions and intersections

Definition
The union of a collection of sets is the set that contains those
elements which are members of at least one set in the
collection.
[
A1 ∪ · · · ∪n A n= i A = {x | ∃i 1, . . . , n}(x ∈ i
∈{ i A )}.
=1

Definition
The intersection of a collection of sets is the set that contains
those elements which are members of all the sets in the
collection.
\
A1 ∩ · · · ∩n A n= i A = {x | ∀i1, . . . , n}(x ∈ i
∈{ i A )}.
=1

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Generalized unions and intersections

A B
A∪B∪C:
C

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics

 Sets
Set
Operations
Generalized unions and intersections

A B
A∪B∪C:
C

A B
A∩B∩C:
C

Prof. Steven Evans Discrete Mathematics