UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Doing Better: Full-wave Diode Bridge

• The diode in the rectifying circuit simply prevented
the negative swing of voltage from conducting
– but this wastes half the available cycle
– also very irregular (bumpy): far from a “good” DC source
• By using four diodes, you can recover the negative
swing:
B & C conduct
input voltage
A B
AC source

A & D conduct
C load
D
voltage seen by load

Winter 2012 1
 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Full-Wave Dual-Supply
• By grounding the center tap, we have two opposite
AC sources
– the diode bridge now presents + and  voltages relative to
ground
– each can be separately smoothed/regulated
– cutting out diodes A and D makes a half-wave rectifier

AC source
A B
voltages seen by loads

C + load
D
 load

can buy pre-packaged diode bridges

Winter 2012 2
 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Smoothing out the Bumps

• Still a bumpy ride, but we can smooth this out with a
capacitor
– capacitors have capacity for storing charge
– acts like a reservoir to supply current during low spots
– voltage regulator smoothes out remaining ripple

A B capacitor
AC source

C load
D

Winter 2012 3
 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

How smooth is smooth?

V
• An RC circuit has a time constant  = RC
– because dV/dt = I/C, and I = V/R  dV/dt = V/RC C R
– so V is V0exp(t/)
• Any exponential function starts out with slope =
Amplitude/
• So if you want < 10% ripple over 120 Hz (8.3 ms)
timescale…
– must have  = RC > 83 ms
– if R = 100 , C > 830 F

Winter 2012
 4
 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Regulating the Voltage

• The unregulated, ripply voltage may not be at the
value you want
– depends on transformer, etc.
– suppose you want 15.0 V
• You could use a voltage divider to set the voltage
• But it would droop under load Vin
– output impedance  R1 || R2 R1
– need to have very small R1, R2 to make “stiff”
Vout
– the divider will draw a lot of current
– perhaps straining the source
1 Rload
R2 3
– power expended in divider >> power in load
2
• Not a “real” solution
• Important note: a “big load” means a small resistor
value: 1  demands more current than 1 M
Winter 2012 5
 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

The Zener Regulator

• Zener diodes break down at some reverse
voltage
– can buy at specific breakdown voltages
– as long as some current goes through
zener, it’ll work zener voltage
– good for rough regulation
• Conditions for working: high slope is what makes the
zener a decent voltage regulator
– let’s maintain some minimal current, Iz
through zener (say a few mA)
Vin
– then (Vin  Vout)/R1 = Iz + Vout/Rload sets the
requirement on R1 R1
– because presumably all else is known
Vout = Vz
– if load current increases too much, zener
shuts off (node drops below breakdown) Rload
Z
and you just have a voltage divider with the
load

Winter 2012 6
 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Voltage Regulator IC
note zeners
• Can trim down ripply voltage to
precise, rock-steady value
• Now things get complicated!
– We are now in the realm of
integrated circuits (ICs)
• ICs are whole circuits in small
packages
• ICs contain resistors,
capacitors, diodes, transistors,
etc.

Winter 2012 7
 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Voltage Regulators
• The most common voltage regulators are the
LM78XX (+ voltages) and LM79XX ( voltages)
– XX represents the voltage
• 7815 is +15; 7915 is 15; 7805 is +5, etc
– typically needs input > 3 volts above output (reg.) voltage

beware that housing is not always ground

• A versatile regulator is the LM317 (+) or LM337 ()

– 1.2–37 V output
– Vout = 1.25(1+R2/R1) + IadjR2
– Up to 1.5 A
– picture at right can go to 25 V
– datasheetcatalog.com for details
Winter 2012 8
 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

Transistors
• Transistors are versatile, highly non-linear
devices
• Two frequent modes of operation:
– amplifiers/buffers
– switches
• Two main flavors:
– npn (more common) or pnp, describing doping C E

structure B B

• Also many varieties: E C

– bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) such as npn, pnp npn pnp

– field effect transistors (FETs): n-channel and p-
channel
– metal-oxide-semiconductor FETs (MOSFETs)
• We’ll just hit the essentials of the BJT here
– MOSFET in later lecture
Winter 2012 9
 UCSD: Physics 121; 2012

BJT Amplifier Mode

• Central idea is that when in the right regime, the BJT
collector-emitter current is proportional to the base
current:
– namely, Ice = Ib, where  (sometimes hfe) is typically ~100
– In this regime, the base-emitter voltage is ~0.6 V
– below, Ib = (Vin  0.6)/Rb; Ice = Ib = (Vin  0.6)/Rb
– so that Vout = Vcc  IceRc = Vcc  (Vin  0.6)(Rc/Rb)
– ignoring DC biases, wiggles on Vin become  (Rc/Rb) bigger
(and inverted): thus amplified
Vcc

Rc

Rb out C
in B

Winter 2012 10