3.

9 Water Management

The irrigation requirement varies according to the

soil type and climatic condition. Generally, an adult
palm requires 600 to 800 liters of water once in
four to seven days. Irrigate in basins of 1.8m radius
and 10-20 cm depth. In coastal sandy soils, sea
water can be used for irrigating adult palms.
3.10 Drought management and soil moisture conservation

Coconut produces nuts around the year. Therefore,

an adequate supply of water is essential for its
unhindered growth. Soil moisture plays a vital role in
the absorption of nutrients. Adverse effects of
moisture stress will be like drooping of leaves,
abnormal growth, premature nut fall ultimately leads
to low yield.

A.Mulching with coconut husks/leaves/coir

Burial of coconut husk or coir pith

3.10.1

A. Mulching with coconut

husks/leaves/coir pith Apply coconut
husks with convex surface facing
upwards (100 Nos.) or dried coconut
leaves (15 Nos) or coir pith up to a height
of 10 cm in the basin of 1.8 m radius
around the palms as mulch for soil
moisture conservation particularly during
summer season.
3..10.2

B. Burial of coconut husk or coir pith

Husk burial can be done in coconut basins or in the interspaces
to overcome drought and button shedding. Bury husks at 100
Nos. with concave surface facing upwards or 25 kg of coir pith
/palm in circular trenches, dug 30 cm width and 60 cm depth at
1.5 meters radius. The husk can be also buried in the trenches
at a distance of 3 m from the palm with a size of 45 cm deep
and 150 cm width in between two rows of coconut. The
soaking of the coconut husk or coir pith as the case may be
preserves the monsoon rains.
3.11 Manuring

Regular manuring from the first year of planting

is essential to achieve higher productivity. For
coconut 20 - 50 kg organic manure should be
applied per palm per year with the onset of south
west monsoon, when soil moisture content is
high.
3.12 Weed Management

Coconut based intercropping and mixed

cropping systems are effective and
economically viable strategies for
controlling weeds in coconut plantation. In
general intercropping with suitable crops
and inter-cultivation will reduce weed
population and increase coconut yield
3.13 Cropping system

A cropping system refers to the type and sequence of crops

grown and practices used for growing them. It encompasses all
cropping sequences practiced over space and time based on the
available technologies of crop production. Cropping systems
have been traditionally structured to maximize crop yields. Now,
there is a strong need to design cropping systems which take into
consideration the emerging social, economical, and ecological or
environmental concerns. Conserving soil and water and
maintaining long-term soil productivity depend largely on the
management of cropping systems, which influence the magnitude
of soil erosion and soil organic matter dynamics.
3.13.1 Intercropping

Inter/mixed crops may be selected based on the climatic requirement of the

inter/mixed crop, irrigation facilities and soil type. The canopy size, age and
spacing of the coconut are also to be considered. Market suitability should be
taken into consideration before selecting an intercrop.

A. Below 7 years of age: Any suitable annual crop for particular soil type
and climatic condition may be raised as intercrops up to 5 years after
planting depending upon the canopy coverage. Groundnut, sesame,
sunflower, tapioca, turmeric and banana can be grown. Avoid crops like
paddy and sugarcane etc.

B. B. 7 – 20 years of age: Green manure crops and fodder crops (Napier

grass and guinea grass) alone can be grown.

C. C. Above 20 years of age (20 years of age has to be adjusted based on

the sunlight transmission of above 50% inside the canopy): The
following crops can be grown depending on the soil and climatic
suitability.
3.13.2 Multiple cropping

The practice of growing biennial and perennial crops like banana, papaya,
pineapple, arecanut, mango, jack fruit etc., along with coconut is prevalent in
the holdings of small farmers. Attempts have also been made to grow rubber
in between the grown up coconut palms. In recent years, tree species like
clove, nutmeg and cinnamon have been introduced and planted in the center
of four coconut palms spaced 7.5 m apart. Attempts are being made to grow
coffee and forest species (un-branched and quick growing type) in between
coconut rows. However, the suitability/compatibility of mixed cropping
system has mostly been overlooked and as a result, the competition with
coconut for soil moisture during stress period, incidence of sunlight,
infestation of pests and occurrence of diseases have been observed. The crops
selected for mixed-cropping should preferably be shade tolerant since the
incidence of sunlight would be insufficient below the coconut canopy.
Banana as Mixed

Crop Among the mixed crops tested, banana is

found to be the most important intercrop for
coconut garden. It responds to similar irrigation and
manuring systems as coconut and also
comparatively free from serious pests and diseases
except the burrowing nematode in certain pockets.
Banana as intercrop is mostly grown under rainfed
conditions. About 1000 banana plants could be
raised/ha of coconut garden (125 palm/ha).
Pineapple as Mixed

Crop Pineapple could be successfully raised as an intercrop both

under rainfed and irrigated conditions. Under irrigated
conditions, the size of each fruit would be about 1.5 kg; while as
a rainfed crop, the size is reduced to half (0.71 kg). About 4000
kg pineapple/ha can be harvested in multi-storeyed cropping
system and much more when only pineapple in grown as inter-
corp
3.14 Harvesting

Coconut are harvested at varying spans in a year. The

frequency differs in different areas depending upon
the yield of the trees in well maintained and highly
yielding gardens, bunches are produce regularly and
harvesting is done once a month. Coconut become
mature in about 12 months after opening of the
spathe. It is the ripe coconut which is the source of
major coconut products. Nuts which is Eleven months
old gives fiber of good quality and can be harvested
in a tracts where green husk are required for the
manufacture of coir fiber. The economic life of
coconut plant is about 65 years
3.15 Marketing

Marketing It is very easy to market as it has

always in the demand. big products
companies may buy or market them to local
whole sale dealers.

The coconut products market is segmented

by product type into coconut oil, coconut
water, coconut milk, desiccated coconut,
and other product types. The market is
segmented by distribution channel
into supermarket/hypermarket,
convenience stores, grocery stores, online
retailing, and other distribution channels.
3.16 Yield

The yields depends on the variety and During the quarter, coconut (with husk)
condition under which it is grown. The production improved to 3.36 million metric
average yield per hectare varies from tons, an increase of 2.0 percent from 3.29
10,000 to 14,000 nuts per annum. million metric tons output in the same
period of last year.
Currently, the average yield of coconut
trees in the Philippines is 45 nuts per tree Davao Region was the top producer of
annually, which is below the 200 to 400 coconut during the quarter, with 460.01
nuts per tree of countries like India and thousand metric tons output or 13.7
Brazil. The only consolation is that the percent share to the country’s total coconut
Philippines has vast lands planted to production. Northern Mindanao and
coconut, approximately 3.5 million Zamboanga Peninsula followed with 13.1
hectares percent and 12.4 percent shares,
respectively.
3.17 Crop Protection

Crop protection is the science and practice of managing

plant diseases, weeds, and other pests that damage crops
and forestry. Crops include field crops, vegetable crops,
and fruits. The crops in the field are exposed to many
factors. The crop plants may be damaged by insects,
birds, rodents, bacteria, etc.

The major insect pests of the coconut palm are the

rhinoceros beetle, the red palm weevil, the black headed
caterpillar, the cockchafer beetle and the coreid bug.
Adopt suitable remedial measures as and when required.
The following table gives the major symptoms and
control measures.
3.17.1 Pest

Rhinoceros Beetle
The adult beetle bores into the unopened fronds and spathes. Attacked
fronds when fully opened show characteristic geometric cuts.

Control measures
Hook out the beetle from the attacked palms using beetle hook.Rhinoceros
Beetle

As a prophylactic measure, fill up the top most three leaf axils with
Sevidol 8G(25g) + fine sand (200g) thrice in April, September and
December. OR Place 10.5g naphthalene balls in the leaf axils and cover it
with fine sand. To be practiced once in 45 days. Spraying 0.01% Carbaryl
(50WP) in the breeding sites of the beetle help destroy the larva. Biological
control using the virus Baculovirus oryctus (release 10 - 15 virus infected
beetles in 1 ha AND Green muscardine fungus, Metarrizhium anisopliae
(spray 250ml Metarrizhium culture + 750ml water in manure pits and other Symptoms
breeding sites of the beetle) Practice clean cultivation.
 Red Palm Weevil

Control measures
Practice clean cultivation by cutting and removing palms already
symptoms damaged and the decaying stumps in the garden. Such palms should be
split open and the different stages of pest inside burned off. Red Palm
Presence of holes on the stem, oozing out Weevil Avoid injury to the trunk as the pest lay eggs in these wounds.
of viscous brown fluid and extrusion of Wounds if any, should be pasted with a mixture of carbaryl / Thiodan
chewed up fibres through the hole. Some and soil. While cutting leaves, retain at least 1m of petiole. Use
times the gnawing sound produced by the pheromone trap for attracting weevils and kill the collected ones. If
feeding grubs will be audible. In the rhinoceros beetle attack is prevalent, follow the recommended
advanced stage of infestation yellowing measures. Use fungicides if leaf rot / bud rot is noticed as the weevil
of the inner whorl of leaves occur. The lays eggs in such palms. Inject attacked palms with 1% Carbaryl
crown falls down or dry up later when (20gm/litre). Plug the holes in damaged region and pour the insecticide
palm is dead. suspension into a slanting hole made above the damaged portion using a
funnel. Then plug this hole also. If needed repeat after one week.
 Black headed Caterpillar

Symptoms Control measures

Biological control is very effective

Severity of attack is seen during against this pest through release of
January to May. The caterpillar feeds parasitoids like Gorriozus nephantidis,
on green matter from lower leaf Elasmus nephantidis and Brachimeria
surface, remaining within silk and nosatoi. In case of severe attack,
frass gallaries. In severe attack all the remove the affected leaves and
green matter of the leaves will be destroy by burning. Then spray the
eaten up. under surface of leaves with 0.02%
Dichlorvos (Dichlorvos 100EC).
 Coreid Bug

The attacked buttons do not develop resulting in

immature nut fall. The nuts if developed may
become barren.

Control measures

Pesticide application is necessary if infection is

severe. Spraying has to be done 3 times a year. Apply
0.1% Carbaryl on the inflorescence after the
receptive phase of the female flowers. Destruction of
pollinating insects can be avoided if spraying is done Symptoms
in afternoon hours. Tying perforated polybags (2
bags/palm) containing 2.5g phorate on to the stalk of
inflorescence is also effective.
3.17.2 Diseases
Bud Rot

Control measure

Remove all affected tissue of the crown and apply

Bordeaux paste on cut end and provide a protective
covering till normal shoot emerges (Dissolve 100 gm of
Symptoms copper sulphate and 100 gm of quick lime each in
500ml. water separately and mix to form 1 litre of
The earlier symptom is the yellowing Bud Rot of Bordeaux paste). Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture on the
one or two younger leaves. Black spots appear crown of the neighbouring palms as a prophylatic
on spindle leaves. In the later stages the spindle measure. Spray with 1% Bordeaux mixture during May
withers and drops down. The tender leaf base and September if the disease occur frequently. Cut and
and soft tissues of the crown rot into a slimy burn severely affected palms which cannot be saved.
mass of decayed material emitting foul smell.
Ultimately the entire crown falls down and the
palm dies. Control measures
 Leaf Rot

Control measures

Improve general condition of palms

through proper manuring and
Symptoms management. Remove the decayed
portions of spindle leaf and upmost two
Blackening and shriveling up leaves only. Pour fungicide solution of
of distal ends of the leaflets Hexaconazol (Contaf 5E) - 2ml or
in the central spindle and Mancozeb (Dithane M45/Indifil M45) -
younger leaves which later 3g in 300ml water per palm to the base
break off in bits. Gradual of spindle leaf. Apply 20g Phorate 10G
weakening of the tree mixed with 200g fine sand around the
resulting in decline yield. base of spindle leaf. 2-3 rounds of
spraying is sufficient in case of mild
infection.
 Stem Bleeding

Control measures

Chisel affected tissue and dress the wound with 5% Calixin

(5ml in 100ml water). Apply coal tar after 2 days. Burn off
chiselled pieces. Avoid any mechanical injury to the stem. To
Symptoms avoid spread of disease on to upper portion of trunk, root
feeding with 5% calixin may be adopted 3 times a year -
Exudation of reddish brown April-May, September-October and January-February. Along
liquid through cracks with 50kg organic manure, apply 5kg neem cake containing
developing on the stem. the antagonistic fungi, Trichoderma culture to the basin during
Decaying of tissues at September. Provide adequate irrigation during summer and
bleeding point Vigour and drainage during rainy season. Apply recommended doses of
yield declining. organic manures and chemical fertilizers. Coconut stem
Development of big holes boring insects like Xyleborus, Diocalandra should be
inside the trunk controlled by applying Carbaryl 50% WP on the trunk @ 3g
per litre water.
 Root(wilt) Disease

Recommended control measures

for leaf rot disease as this disease gets superimposed on most of the root wilt
affected palms. Follow integrated nutrient management apply organic manure @
50kg / palm / year. apply balanced dose of chemical fertilizers i.e. 500g Nitrogen
(1.1kg urea), 300g Phosphorus (1.7kg Mussouriphos), 1000g Potassium (1.7kg
Murriate of potash) in two splits - 1/3rd during April-May and 2/3rd during
Symptoms
September-October under rainfed condition and in four splits during January,
April, July and October under irrigated condition. In addition to this 500g MgO
(1kg Magnesium sulphate) also has to be applied along with second dose of
Abnormal bending or
fertilizer application.
ribbing of the leaflets,
flaccidity of the leaves,
Cut and remove disease advanced, uneconomical palms yielding less than 10 nuts
general yellowing followed
per palm per year. Grow green manure crops - cowpea, sunhemp (Crotalaria
by marginal necrosis of the
juncea), Mimosa invisa, Calapagonium mucanoides, Pueraria phaseoloides etc.
leaflets. Abnormal shedding
may be sown in coconut basins during April-May and incorporated during
of buttons, reduced leaves
September-October. Irrigate coconut palms with at least 250 litre water in a week.
and crown, gradual reduction
Adopt suitable inter/mixed cropping in coconut gardens. Provide adequate
in yield.
drainage facilities
 Tanjavur wilt

Control measures

Practice growing banana as intercrop in

coconut. Root feeding with Calixin (2ml in
100ml water) once in 3 months. Drench the
basin with 25 litre of 0.1% Calixin.
Symptoms
Apply neem cake containing Trichoderma
Decay of finer nuts, at 5kg /palm/year. Apply recommended
withering, yellowing, dose of organic manures. Avoid flood
drooping and drying of outer irrigation and follow drip irrigation.
whorl of leaves and Practice clean cultivation and burn off
exudation of reddish brown diseased plant pests.
fluid at the base of the trunk.
3.18 SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN COCONUT

1. Rejuvenation of existing garden The low yield in

vast majority of gardens is due to thick population,
lack of manuring and irrigation. These gardens
could be improved if the following measures are
taken.

Thinning of thickly populated gardens: In the farmer’s

holdings where thick planting is adopted, many trees
give an yield of less than 20 nuts/palm/year. By
cutting and removal of these trees, the yield could be
increased. Besides, there is saving in the cost of
cultivation and increase in net profit. After removal of
low yielding trees, the populations should be
maintained at 175 palms/ha. Ensuring adequate
manuring and irrigation: The yield can be increased in
the existing gardens when manuring + irrigation +
cultural practice is adopted as per recommendation.
2. Pencil point disorder

(Micronutrient deficiency) Because of micronutrient

deficiency, the stem will taper towards its tip with lesser
number of leaves. The leaf size will be greatly reduced and
the leaves will be pale and yellow in colour. Along with
the recommended fertilizer dose, 225 g each of Borax,
Zinc sulphate, Manganese sulphate, Ferrous sulphate,
Copper sulphate and 10 g of Ammonium molybdate may
be dissolved in 10 litres of water and poured in the basin of
1.8 m radius. This disorder can be corrected if noticed
early. Severely affected palms may be removed and
replanted with new seedlings.
3. Button shedding

Shedding of buttons and premature

nuts may be observed to many
reasons: Provide regular irrigation,
requested nutrition to reduce the
button shedding.
Barren nuts Apply extra 2 kg of K2O with
200 g of Borax/palm over and above the
usual dosage of fertilizer to correct the
barren nuts in coconut.

Regularly survey for pest and diseases

Select seedlings 9 to 12 months after
planting. Seedlings, which have germinated
earlier, having good girth at collar and early
splitting of leaflets, should be selected for
planting.
3.19 Physiological disorder

Physiological disorders are caused by non-

pathological conditions such as poor light,
adverse weather, water-logging,
phytotoxic compounds or a lack of
nutrients, and affect the functioning of the
plant system.
3.19.1 Major nutrients

1.Nitrogen
Nitrogen deficiency is typically caused by
insufficient nitrogen in the soil. Nitrogen
deficiency begins as a uniform light green
discoloration / yellowing (uniform chlorosis)
of the oldest leaves. Yellowing starts from tip
to base of the lower leaves and will proceed
up. As the deficiency progresses, younger
leaves will also become discoloured. Older
leaves are golden yellow colour.
Growth virtually stops when N deficiency is severe
and become shedding of leaves.

Correction measure: Foliar application of 2% urea

thrice at fortnightly interval or soil application of 1-2
Kg urea / tree or root feeding of 1% urea 200 ml
twice a year.
 2. Phosphorus
Deficiency occurs in acid and alkaline soils.
Purple coloration in leaves (in severe cases
may leaves turn yellow before drying
prematurely). Sluggish growth. Leaves stay
upright. Premature leaf shedding. The
growth, leaf size and leaf number reduced.
The root growth is restricted if phosphorus
deficiency is recorded.

Correction measure: Foliar spray of DAP 2%

twice at fortnightly interval or soil application
of FYM 5 Kg/tree. Root feeding of 1% DAP
2 ml twice a year.
 3. Potassium

Symptoms of potassium deficiency of coconut

include brown and yellow discoloration and
drooping of older, lower leaves. A potassium-
deficient palm has scorched leaves in the lower
canopy.

For severely K-deficient landscape palms,

broadcast this 3:1 blend of sulfur-coated
potassium sulfate and prilled kieserite uniformly
to the soil under the canopy at a rate of 1.5 lbs
per 100 sq ft of canopy area. This should be
repeated in three months.
3.19.2 Minor nutrients
1.Boron (B) Deficiency

Symptoms always occur on newly emerging leaves, and

remain visible on these leaves as they mature and are replaced
by younger leaves. One of the earliest symptoms of B
deficiency on coconut palm is leaf wrinkling and manifested
as sharply bent leaflet tips, commonly called “hook leaf”.
Leaves have a serrated zigzag appearance. Other common
symptom is the failure of newly emerging spear leaves to open
normally. In a chronic stage, multiple unopened spear leaves
may be visible at the apex of the canopy. Boron deficiency
also occurs in inflorescence and nuts. The inflorescence and
nuts are become necrotic. Diagnostic Techniques
Boron deficiency symptoms are quite distinctive and Management Foliar spray of 0.2 %
are usually sufficient for diagnosis by themselves. (2g in 1 lire of water) borax at the
Manganese deficiency produces symptoms similar to
those of B deficiency, but no other common deficiency
rate of 75 – 100 ml per seedling.
produces symptoms that could be confused with those Spraying is commonly practiced
of B deficiency. Because B deficiency is so transient in when coconut palms are at the
nature, the element is immobile within the palm nursery stage. 1 year old – Borax 5-
(cannot move from one leaf to another), and 10 g/plant per year 2-3 years old –
deficiencies affect only leaf primordial developing
within the bud area, leaf analysis is not particularly
Borax 15- 20 g/plant per year 4
useful. years old and more – Borax 30 -50
g/plant per 2 years
 2.Manganese (Mn) Deficiency

Manganese deficiency is very common on

alkaline soils. The newest leaves of Mn
deficient palms emerge chlorotic with
longitudinal necrotic streaks. As the
deficiency progresses, newly emerging
leaflets appear necrotic and withered on all
but basal portions of the leaflets. This
withering results in a curling of the leaflets
about the rachis giving the leaf a frizzled
appearance (frizzle top). In severely Mn-
deficient palms, growth stops and newly
emerging leaves consist solely of necrotic
petiole stubs.
Diagnostic Techniques Visual symptoms may be
sufficient to diagnose this disorder, but leaf nutrient
analysis is also suggested, since symptoms of boron (B)
deficiency can be similar. Late stage potassium (K)
deficiency symptoms are virtually indistinguishable from
those of Mn deficiency at a distance and close
examination is required to look for characteristic
longitudinal streaking and basal symptom distribution of
Mn deficiency.

Management Soil application of MnSO4 at 25kg/ha

 3.Magnesium (Mg) Deficiency

Magnesium deficiency appears on the oldest leaves of palms

as broad chlorotic (yellow) bands along the margins with
the central portion of the leaves remaining distinctly green.
In severe cases leaflet tips may become necrotic. Older
leaves become bronzed and dry appearance. Leaflets show
necrosis and turn to reddish brown with translucent spots
yellowing starts at the tip and spreads to the base.
Diagnostic Techniques

Visual symptoms alone are usually sufficient to diagnose Mg

deficiency. Magnesium deficiency symptoms differ from those of K
deficiency in that symptom severity of discoloration K- deficient
leaves is usually orange to bronze, shading gradually to green at the
base of the leaf, whereas Mg- deficient leaves have distinctly green
leaf centers and bright lemon yellow to orange margins.

Management

Soil application of MgSO4 1-2 kg/tree/year. Root feeding of 200 ml

of 0.2% MgSO4 twice a year.
 4.Zinc (Zn) Deficiency

Zinc deficiency is characterized by

formation of small leaves wherein the leaf
size is reduced to 50%. Leaflets become
chlorotic, narrow and reduced in length. In
acute deficiency, flowering is delayed. Zinc
deficiency will also lead to button
shedding.

Management

Soil application of ZnSO4 at 25kg/ha

 5. Iron (Fe) Deficiency

Iron deficiency usually appears on palms growing in poorly

aerated soils or those that have been planted too deeply.
Water logged soils and deep planting effectively suffocate
the roots and reduce their effectiveness in taking up
nutrients such as Fe.

The main symptom of iron deficiency is chlorosis or

yellowing between the veins of new leaves (Uniform
chlorotic new leaves as the deficiency progresses, the tips
become necrotic and leaf size reduced).

Management

Application of Feso4 0.25 to 0.5 kg/tree/year

 6. Calcium (Ca) Deficiency

Young leaves exhibit narrow white bands

at margins Interveinal (chlorosis) Rusty
appearance in leaf margin Rolling up of
leaves Occurs only in acid soil

Management

Soil application of lime based on lime

requirement and root feeding of 1%
calcium nitrate
 7.Copper (Cu) Deficiency

Coppery bluish leaf Rolling of

terminal leaves due to loss of turgor
Leaves appear to be bleached grey
Fail to produce flowers

Management

Soil application of CuSO4 at 25 kg

per ha.
 8.Molybdenum (Mo) Deficiency

Chlorotic leaf blade Small slender leaves

Rosetted plants Occurrence of whip tail

Management

Root feeding of 0.05% (0.5g/litre of water)

Sodium Molybdate
3.20 IPM in coconut

IPM or Integrated pest management is a

strategy that integrates various methods of
cultural, physical, mechanical, biological
control and selection of pesticides as the last
option. IPM is not only cost effective but
simultaneously prioritized human and
environmental safety. IPM is based on
farmer’s local knowledge, acceptance and
education. Several insects were reported as
coconut pests in Asia and Pacific region.
Among these pests, rhinoceros beetle, red palm weevil, coconut
hispine beetle, coconut black headed caterpillar and coconut
scale currently causing severe damage to coconut palms in the
region. Rhinoceros beetle, Oryctes rhinoceros Linnaeus
(Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) is native to South Asia and
Southeast Asia. Management of this pest is a combination of
sanitation in plantations and surrounding, biological control by
using Metarhizium anisopliae, Oryctes virus and pheromone
trapping. Red palm weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Olivier
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae) outbreaks usually occur after
infestation of rhinoceros beetle. Keeping the rhinoceros under
control results in keeping the red palm weevil under control too.
Pheromone trapping is also developed for reduction of this pest.