frequency

modulators
 Frequency Modulators
• A frequency modulator is a circuit that varies carrier frequency in
accordance with the modulating signal.

• The carrier is generated by either an LC or a crystal oscillator.

• In an LC oscillator, the carrier frequency can be changed by varying

either the inductance or capacitance.

• In crystal oscillators, the frequency is fixed by the crystal.

 Frequency Modulators

• The idea is to find a circuit or component that converts a modulating voltage to a

corresponding change in capacitance or inductance.

• Varactor also known as variable capacitor, variable capacitance diode, or varicap.

Device that is semiconductor junction diode operated in reverse-bias mode.
 varactor operation
• The function of the varactor diode is to store charges.
• A junction diode is created when P- and N-type semiconductors are formed during
manufacturing process.
 varactor operation
• Varactors are made with a wide range of capacitance values, most units having a
nominal capacitance in the 1- to 200-pF range. The capacitance variation range can
be as high as 12 :1.

Shows the curve for a typical diode.

A maximum capacitance of 80 pF is
obtained at 1 V. With 60 V applied,
the capacitance drops to 20 pF, a
4 :1 range. The operating range is
usually restricted to the linear
center portion of the curve.
 varactor modulators
A carrier oscillator for a transmitter shows the basic concept of a varactor frequency
modulator. The capacitance of varactor diode D1 and L1 forms the parallel-tuned
circuit of the oscillator. The value of C1 is made very large at the operating
frequency so that its reactance is very low. As a result, C1 connects the tuned circuit
to the oscillator circuit. Also, C1 blocks the dc bias on the base of Q1 from being
shorted to ground through L1 . The values of L1 and D1 fix the center carrier
frequency.

The capacitance of D1 is controlled in two ways, through a fixed dc bias and by the
modulating signal. In Fig. 6-4, the bias on D1 is set by the voltage divider
potentiometer R4 . Varying R4 allows the center carrier frequency to be adjusted
over a narrow range. The modulating signal is applied through C5 and the radio
frequency choke (RFC); C5 is a blocking capacitor that keeps the dc varactor bias
out of the modulating-signal circuits. The reactance of the RFC is high at the carrier
frequency to prevent the carrier signal from getting back into the audio modulating-
signal circuits.
The modulating signal derived from the microphone is amplified and applied to the modulator. As the modulating signal varies, it adds to and
subtracts from the fixed-bias voltage. Thus, the effective voltage applied to D1 causes its capacitance to vary. This, in turn, produces the desired
deviation of the carrier frequency. A positive- going signal at point A adds to the reverse bias, decreasing the capacitance and increasing the carrier
frequency. A negative-going signal at A subtracts from the bias, increasing the capacitance and decreasing the carrier frequency.
example
example
 frequency-modulating a crystal oscillator
Crystal oscillators provide highly accurate frequencies.
• The frequency of a crystal oscillator can be varied by changing the value of capacitance in series or parallel
with the crystal.
• By making the series capacitance a varactor diode, frequency modulation can be achieved.
• The modulating signal is applied to the varactor diode which changes the oscillator frequency.

• Varactors are made with a wide range of capacitance values, most

units having a nominal capacitance in the 1 to 200 pF range.
• A frequency multiplier circuit is one whose output frequency is
some integer multiple of the input frequency.
⚬ Doubler is a frequency multiplier that multiplies a frequency
by 2.
⚬ Tripler is a frequency multiplier that multiplies a frequency
by 3.
• Note that only a very small frequency deviation is possible with frequency-modulated crystal oscillators.

• Rarely can the frequency of a crystal oscillator be changed more than several hundred hertz from the
nominal crystal value.
 VOLTAGE - CONTROLLED OSCILLATORS

Oscillators whose frequencies are controlled by an external input voltage are generally referred to as voltage-
controlled oscillators (VCOs) or VXO’s.

• used in other applications where voltage-to-frequency conversion is required. Eg. phase-locked loops
• Voltage - controlled crystal oscillator are generally referred to as VXOs
• VCOs are primarily used in FM.
• VCOs are also used in voltage-to-frequency conversion applications.
 VOLTAGE - CONTROLLED OSCILLATORS

Conventional Oscillators vs. Voltage – controlled oscillators

Can be selected by the passive components such Passive components are also present but we
as resistor, capacitor, and inductor. must change the control voltage to change the
frequency of oscillator.
By changing the capacitor, oscillation frequency Can change in a particular frequency range but
can be changed. commercially, the VCOs can work from few Hz
to 10s of GHz. Thus, it is widely used in
communication.

If we want to change the frequency, we need

either a variable resistor or variable capacitor.
 VOLTAGE - CONTROLLED OSCILLATORS

• VCOs can be used for FM or PM by applying a modulating signal to control the input.
• A VCO is also an integral part of a phase-locked loop. VCOs are used in synthesizers to generate a waveform
whose pitch can be adjusted by a voltage determined by a musical keyboard or other input.

• A voltage-to-frequency converter (VFC) is a special type of VCO designed to be very linear in frequency
control over a wide range of input control voltages.
 VOLTAGE - CONTROLLED OSCILLATORS

• VCOs can be used for FM or PM by applying a modulating signal to control the input.
• A VCO is also an integral part of a phase-locked loop. VCOs are used in synthesizers to generate a waveform
whose pitch can be adjusted by a voltage determined by a musical keyboard or other input.

• A voltage-to-frequency converter (VFC) is a special type of VCO designed to be very linear in frequency
control over a wide range of input control voltages.
 VOLTAGE - CONTROLLED OSCILLATORS

Applications
• - Phase lock loop
• - Modulation and demodulation circuits
• - Frequency synthesizers
• - Function generator
 phase modulators
• žMost modern FM transmitters use some form of phase modulation to
produce indirect FM.

• žCrystal oscillators or crystal-controlled frequency synthesizers can

be used to set the carrier frequency accurately and maintain solid
stability.

• žThe output of the carrier oscillator is fed to a phase modulator where

the phase shift is made to vary in accordance with the modulating
signal.
Simple Phase Shifters
• žSome phase modulators are based upon the phase shift produced by
an RC or LC tuned circuit.

• žSimple phase shifters do not produce a linear response over a large

range of phase shift.

• žTo compensate for this, restrict the total allowable phase shift to
maximize linearity. Multipliers must also be used to achieve the
desired deviation.
A. RC Phase-shifter(s)
The simplest phase shifters are RC networks.
B. Varactor Phase Modulator
• žA simple phase-shift circuit can be used as a phase modulator if the resistance or capacitance can be
made to vary with the modulating signal.

• žOne way to do this is to replace the capacitor shown in the circuit of Fig. (b) with a varactor. The
resulting phase-shift circuit is shown as:
• žThe modulating signal causes the capacitance of the varactor to change.
ž-If the modulating signal amplitude at the output of amplifier A becomes more positive, it adds to
the varactor reverse bias from R1 and R2, causing the capacitance to decrease. This causes the
reactance to increase; thus, the circuit produces less phase shift and less deviation.

-A more negative modulating signal from A subtracts from the reverse bias on the varactor diode,
increasing the capacitance or decreasing the capacitive reactance. This increases the amount of phase
shift and the deviation.

• žAn inverting amplifier A can be inserted between the modulating signal source and the input to the
modulator. Then when the modulating signal goes positive, the inverter output and modulator input go
negative and the deviation increases.

• C1 and C2 are dc blocking capacitors and have very low reactance at the carrier frequency.
• žžThe phase shift produced is lagging, and as in any phase modulator, the output amplitude and
phase vary with a change in the modulating signal amplitude.

• žA simple formula for determining the amount of frequency deviation fd represented by a specific
phase angle is
 frequency demodulators
Any circuit that will convert a frequency variation in the carrier back to a proportional
voltage variation can be used to demodulate or detect FM signals. Circuits used to recover
the original modulating signal from an FM transmission are called demodulators, detectors,
or discriminators.

Slope Detectors
The simplest frequency demodulator is the slope detector. It makes use of a tuned circuit and
a diode detector to convert frequency variations to voltage variations.

This has the same configuration as the basic AM diode detector, although it is tuned differently.
• ·To use the circuit to detect or recover FM, the circuit is tuned so that the center or carrier frequency of the FM
signals is approximately centered on the leading edge of the response curve, as shown in Fig. 6-12(b). As the
carrier frequency varies above and below its center frequency, the tuned circuit responds as shown in the figure.

• ·If the frequency goes lower than the carrier frequency, the output voltage across C1 decreases. If the frequency
goes higher, the output across C1 goes higher. Thus, the ac voltage across C1 is proportional to the frequency of
the FM signal. The voltage across C1 is rectified into dc pulses that appear across the load R1. These are filtered
into a varying dc signal that is an exact reproduction of the original modulating signal.
• ·The main difficulty with slope detectors lies in tuning them so that the FM signal is correctly centered on the
leading edge of the tuned circuit.

• ·The slope detector is never used in practice, but it does show the principle of FM demodulation, i.e., converting a
frequency variation to a voltage variation. Numerous practical designs based upon these principles have been
developed. These include the Foster- Seeley discriminator and the ratio detector, neither of which is used in
modern equipment.
Pulse-Averaging Discriminators

The FM signal is applied to a zero-crossing detector or a clipper-limiter that generates a binary voltage-level change
each time the FM signal varies from minus to plus, or from plus to minus. The FM square wave is then applied to a
one-shot (monostable) multivibrator that generates a fixed-amplitude, fixed-width dc pulse on the leading edge of
each FM cycle. The one-shot output pulses are then fed to a simple RC low-pass filter that averages the dc pulses to
recover the original modulating signal.
Some pulse-averaging discriminators generate a pulse every half-cycle or at every zero crossing instead of every one
cycle of the input. With a greater number of pulses to average, the output signal is easier to filter and contains less
ripple. The pulse-averaging discriminator is a very high-quality frequency demodulator. In the past, its use was limited
to expensive telemetry and industrial control applications. Today, with the availability of low-cost ICs, the pulse-
averaging discriminator is easily implemented and is used in many electronic products.
Quadrature Detectors
• The quadrature detector uses a phase-shift circuit to produce a phase shift of 90° at the unmodulated carrier frequency.
• ·The term quadrature refers to a 90º phase shift between two signals.

The frequency-modulated signal is applied through a very small capacitor (C1) to the parallel-tuned circuit, which is
adjusted to resonate at the center carrier frequency. The two quadrature signals are then fed to a phase detector circuit.
The most commonly used phase detector is a balanced modulator using differential amplifiers. The output of the phase
detector is a series of pulses whose width varies with the amount of phase shift between the two signals. These signals
are averaged in an RC low-pass filter to recreate the original modulating signal.
Phase-Locked Loops
A phase-locked loop (PLL) is a frequency- or phase-sensitive feedback control circuit used in frequency demodulation, frequency
synthesizers, and various filtering and signal detection applications. All phase-locked loops have the three basic elements, shown
in Fig. 6-17.

The ability of a phase-locked loop to provide frequency selectivity and filtering gives it a signal-to noise ratio superior to that of
any other type of FM detector.

1. A phase detector is used to compare the FM input, sometimes referred to as the reference signal, to the output of
a VCO.

2. The VCO frequency is varied by the dc output voltage from a low-pass filter.
3. The low-pass filter smoothes the output of the phase detector into a control voltage that varies the frequency of the VCO.

The primary job of the phase detector is to compare the two input signals and generate an output signal that, when filtered, will control
the VCO. If there is a phase or frequency difference between the FM input and VCO signals, the phase detector output varies in
proportion to the difference. The filtered output adjusts the VCO frequency in
an attempt to correct for the original frequency or phase difference. This dc control voltage, called the error signal, is also the feedback
in this circuit.

When no input signal is applied, the phase detector and low-pass filter outputs are zero. The VCO then operates at what is called the
free-running frequency, its normal operating frequency as determined by internal frequency-determining components. When an input
signal close to the frequency of the VCO is applied, the phase detector compares the VCO free-running frequency to the input
frequency and produces an output voltage
proportional to the frequency difference.

The range of frequencies over which a PLL can track an input signal and remain locked is known as the lock range. The lock range is
usually a band of frequencies above and below the free-running frequency of the VCO. If the input signal frequency is out of the lock
range, the PLL will not lock. When this occurs, the VCO output frequency jumps to its free-running frequency.
.If an input frequency within the lock range is applied to the PLL, the circuit immediately adjusts itself into a locked condition. The
phase detector determines the phase difference between the free-running and input frequencies of the VCO and generates the error
signal that forces the VCO to equal the input frequency. This action is referred to as capturing an input signal. Once the input signal
is captured, the PLL remains locked and will track any changes in the input signal as long as the frequency is within the lock
range. The range of frequencies over which a PLL will capture an input signal, known as
the capture range, is much narrower than the lock range, but, like the lock range, is generally
centered on the free-running frequency of the VCO (see Fig. 6-18).
The characteristic that causes the PLL to capture signals within a certain frequency range causes it to act as a bandpass filter. Phase-
locked loops are often used in signal conditioning applications, where it is desirable to pass signals only in a certain rangeand to
reject signals outside of that range. The PLL is highly effective in eliminating thenoise and interference on a signal.

The capture range fo of a phase-locked loop is smaller than the lock range. Once the input frequency is captured, the output
frequency will match it until the input frequency goes out of the lock range. Then the phase-locked loop will return to the free-
running frequency of the VCO.
Note that the recovered original modulating signal is taken from the filter output. The free-running frequency
of the
VCO ( f0) is set by external components R1 and C1 according to the formula
f0 = 1.2/4R1C1 = 1.2/4(2700) (0.01 x 10^-6) = 11,111 Hz or 11.11 kHz.
The lock range fL can be computed with an expression supplied by the manufacturer for this circuit
fL = 16 f0/VS, where VS is the total supply voltage. In the circuit of Fig. 6-19, VS is the sum of the two 12-V
supplies, or 24 V, so the total lock range centered on the free-running frequency is fL = 16(11.11 x 10^3) /24 =
7406.7 Hz, or ±3703.3 Hz.

With this circuit, it is assumed that the unmodulated carrier frequency is the same as the free-running
frequency, 11.11 kHz. Of course, it is possible to set this type of circuit to any other desired center frequency
simply by changing the values of R1 and C1. The upper frequency limitation for the 565 IC is 500 kHz.
fm generation
The Direct Method or Parameter Variation Method
• ·In direct method or parameter variation method, the baseband or modulating signal directly modulates the carrier.

• ·The carrier signal is generated with the help of an oscillator circuit. This oscillator circuit uses a parallel tuned L-C circuit.
The frequency of oscillation of the carrier generation is governed by the expression:

• ·The carrier frequency ωc may vary in accordance with the baseband or modulating signal x(t), if L or C is varied according
to x(t).

• ·An oscillator circuit whose frequency is controlled by a modulating voltage is called voltage controlled oscillator (VCO).
The frequency of VCO is varied according to the modulating signal simply by putting a shunt voltage variable capacitor with
its tuned circuit. This voltage variable capacitor is called varactor or varicap.
·
• The capacitance of bipolar junction transistors (BJT) and field-effect transistors (FET) is varied by the Miller-effect. This
miller capacitance may be utilized for frequency modulation.
• ·The electron tubes may also provide variable reactance (either it is inductive or capacitive) which is proportional to
modulating or baseband signal. This type of tubes is called reactance tubes and may be used for FM generation.

• ·The inductance L of the tuned circuit may also be varied in accordance with the baseband or modulating signal x(t). The
FM circuit using such inductors is called saturable reactor modulator.

• ·Frequency modulation can also be achieved from voltage controlled devices such as PIN diode, Klystron oscillators and
multivibrators.
Reactance Modulator
• ·The frequency of this oscillator is changed by changing the reactive components involved in the tuned circuit. If L or C of a
tuned circuit of an oscillator is changed in accordance with the amplitude of modulating signal then FM can be obtained
across the tuned circuit.

Figure.2.4.1 Principle of Reactance Modulator

The FM transmitter has three basic sections.
1.The exciter section contains the carrier oscillator, reactance modulator and the buffer amplifier.
2.The frequency multiplier section, which features several frequency multipliers.
3.The power output section, which includes a low- level power amplifier, the final power amplifier, and the impedance matching
network to properly load the power section with the antenna impedance.

The Exciter
1.The function of the carrier oscillator is to generate a stable sine wave signal at the rest frequency, when no modulation is
applied. It must be able to linearly change frequency when fully modulated, with no measurable change in amplitude.

2.The buffer amplifier acts as a constant high-impedance load on the oscillator to help stabilize the oscillator frequency. The
buffer amplifier may have a small gain.

3.The modulator acts to change the carrier oscillator frequency by application of the message signal. The positive peak of the
message signal generally lowers the oscillator's frequency to a point below the rest frequency, and the negative message peak
raises the oscillator frequency to a value above the rest frequency. The greater the peak-to-peak message signal, the larger the
oscillator deviation.
Frequency Multiplier
• ·A special form of class C amplifier is the frequency. multiplier. Any class C amplifier is capable of performing frequency
multiplication if the tuned circuit in the collector resonates at some integer multiple of the input frequency.

• ·Frequency multipliers are tuned-input, tuned-output RF amplifiers in which the output resonant circuit is tuned to a multiple
of the input frequency. Common frequency multipliers are 2x, 3x and 4x multiplication. A 5x Frequency multiplier is
sometimes seen, but its extreme low efficiency forbids widespread usage.

• ·Note that multiplication is by whole numbers only. There’s no 1.5x multiplier, for instance.

Reactance
Modulator
Varactor Diode Modulator
• Direct method of FM generation wherein the carrier frequency is directly varied by the modulating signal.
• A varactor diode is a semiconductor diode whose junction capacitance varies linearly with applied voltage when the diode is
reverse biased.
• Varactor diodes are used along with reactance modulator to provide automatic frequency correction for an FM transmitter.

The varactor diode FM modulator

• Varactor diode is arranged in reverse bias to offer junction capacitance effect. The modulating voltage which is in series with
the varactor diode will vary the bias and hence the junction capacitance, resulting the oscillator frequency to change
accordingly.

• The external modulating AF voltage adds to and subtracts from the dc bias, which changes the capacitance of the diode and
thus the frequency of oscillation.

• Positive alternations of the modulating signal increase the reverse bias on the varactor diode, which decreases its capacitance
and increases the frequency of oscillation.

• Conversely, negative alternations of the modulating signal decrease the frequency of oscillation. The RFC and capacitor C b
act as a filter which transmits only the AF variations to the varactor diode and blocks high frequency RF voltage from
reaching the AF stage.

• The varactor diode FM modulators are widely accepted because they are simple to use, reliable and have the stability of a
crystal oscillator.

• This method of FM generation is direct because the oscillator frequency is varied directly by the modulating signal, and the
magnitude of frequency change is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal voltage.
• Varactor diode modulator is used for automatic frequency control and remote tuning. The drawback of varactor diode
modulator is that since it uses a crystal, the peak frequency deviation is limited to relatively small values. Thus they are used
mostly for low index applications such as two way mobile radio. Also since they are a two terminal device, the applications
are quite limited.
Indirect Method of WBFM

• Narrow band frequency modulation is generated first and with help of frequency multipliers wide band frequency is produced.

• Since the modulation index of NBFM is less than 1, choose the frequency multiplier value properly to get the required
modulation index (greater the one) of the FM wave.

• Multiple stages of frequency multipliers and mixers may be needed often in order to
to increase FM wave's frequency deviation and modulation index.
Armstrong Phase Modulator

• Describes the principle of operation of an Armstrong phase modulator

• The output signal from the carrier oscillator is supplied to circuits that perform the task of modulating the carrier signal.

• The oscillator does not change frequency, as is the case of direct FM. These points out the major advantage of phase
modulation (PM), or indirect FM, over direct FM. That is the phase modulator is crystal controlled for frequency.
Armstrong Modulator

• The crystal-controlled carrier oscillator signal is directed to two circuits in parallel. This signal (usually a sine wave) is
established as the reference past carrier signal and is assigned a value 0°.

• The balanced modulator is an amplitude modulator used to form an envelope of double side-bands and to suppress the carrier
signal (DSSC). This requires two input signals, the carrier signal and the modulating message signal.

• The output of the modulator is connected to the adder circuit; here the 90° phase-delayed carriers signal will be added back to
replace the suppressed carrier. The act of delaying the carrier phase by 90° does not change the carrier frequency or its wave-
shape. This signal identified as the 90° carrier signal.

• The carrier frequency change at the adder output is a function of the output phase shift and is found by. fc = ∆θfs (in hertz) .
When θ is the phase change in radians and fs is the lowest audio modulating frequency. In most FM radio bands, the lowest
audio frequency is 50Hz. Therefore, the carrier frequency change at the adder output is 0.6125 x 50Hz = ± 30Hz since 10%
AM represents the upper limit of carrier voltage change, then ± 30Hz is the maximum deviation from the modulator for PM.
• The 90° phase shift network does not change the signal frequency because the components and resulting phase change are
constant with time.

• However, the phase of the adder output voltage is in a continual state of change brought about by the cyclical variations of
the message signal, and during the time of a phase change, there will also be a frequency change
end