Programming languages

• Machine languages, that are interpreted directly in hardware

• Assembly languages, that are thin wrappers over a
corresponding machine language
• High-level languages, that are anything machine-independent
• System languages, that are designed for writing low-level tasks,
like memory and process management
• Scripting languages, that are generally extremely high-level and
powerful
• Domain-specific languages, that are used in highly special-
purpose areas only
• Visual languages, that are non-text based
• These types are not mutually exclusive: Perl is
both high-level and scripting; C is considered
both high-level and system. Some languages
are partially visual, but you get to type bits of
code into little boxes.
• Machine Languages
• Machine language is the direct representation of the code and data run directly by a
computing device. Machine languages feature:
• Registers to store values and intermediate results
• Very low-level machine instructions (add, sub, div, sqrt) which operate on these
registers and/or memory
• Labels and conditional jumps to express control flow
• A lack of memory management support — programmers do that themselves
• The machine instructions are carried out in the hardware of the machine, so machine
code is by definition machine-dependent. Different machines have different
instruction sets. The instructions and their operands are all just bits.
• Machine code is usually written in hex. Here’s an example for the Intel 64 architecture:
• 89 F8 A9 01 00 00 00 75 06 6B C0 03 FF C0 C3 C1 E0 02 83 E8 03 C3
• Assembly Languages
An assembly language is an encoding of machine
code into something more readable. It assigns
human-readable labels (or names) to storage
locations, jump targets, and subroutine starting
addresses, but doesn’t really go too far beyond
that. It’s really isomorphic to its machine language.
Here’s the function from above on the Intel 64
architecture using the GAS assembly language:
• Assembly Languages
• An assembly language is an encoding of machine
code into something more readable. It assigns
human-readable labels (or names) to storage
locations, jump targets, and subroutine starting
addresses, but doesn’t really go too far beyond
that. It’s really isomorphic to its machine language.
Here’s the function from above on the Intel 64
architecture using the GAS assembly language:
• High-Level Languages
• A high-level language gets away from all the constraints of a particular machine. HLLs may
have features such as:
• Names for almost everything: variables, types, subroutines, constants, modules
• Complex expressions (e.g. 2 * (y^5) >= 88 && sqrt(4.8) / 2 % 3 == 9)
• Control structures (conditionals, switches, loops)
• Composite types (arrays, structs)
• Type declarations
• Type checking
• Easy, often implicit, ways to manage global, local and heap storage
• Subroutines with their own private scope
• Abstract data types, modules, packages, classes
• Exceptions
• The previous example looks like this in Fortran 77 (note how the code begins in column 7
or beyond):
https://cs.lmu.edu/~ray/notes/pltypes/
Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
• Developed in 1960s to manage large software
development projects
• Still in wide use today and called waterfall methodology
• Very structured
– each phase has an end deliverable requiring approval to next phase
– each phase must be completed before the next phase can start

• Phases:
1. Preliminary Analysis
2. Systems Analysis
3. Systems Design
4. Programming
5. Testing
6. Implementation
7. Maintenance
 SDLC Phases
1.Preliminary Analysis – requests are reviewed
– Deliverable - feasibility analysis document
2.Systems Analysis – if approved, determine the system requirements
for new system
– Deliverable – systems requirement document
3.Systems Design – converts system analysis requirements into system
design document deliverable
4.Programming – coding commences using design documents
5.Testing – ensures that the code functions according to requirements
6.Implementation – converting from old system to
new system
– Training, documenting functions, and data
conversion
7.Maintenance – support for reporting
prioritizing, and fixing bugs
 Programming Languages
• Used to develop new systems
• Multiple generations:

• Fast development
• Assembly Language

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

• Machine Code • Similar to spoken languages • Use developer environments
• Used some English like
• Zeros and Ones • Machine independent that help generate the code
phrases
• Machine dependent • E.g., JAVA • Machine independent
• Machine dependent
• E.g., SQL and SPSS
 SDLC Model
A framework that describes the activities
performed at each stage of a software
development project.
Waterfall Model
• Requirements – defines needed
information, function, behavior,
performance and interfaces.
• Design – data structures, software
architecture, interface
representations, algorithmic
details.
• Implementation – source code,
database, user documentation,
testing.
 Waterfall Strengths
• Easy to understand, easy to use
• Provides structure to inexperienced staff
• Milestones are well understood
• Sets requirements stability
• Good for management control (plan, staff, track)
• Works well when quality is more important than cost
or schedule
 Waterfall Deficiencies
• All requirements must be known upfront
• Deliverables created for each phase are considered
frozen – inhibits flexibility
• Can give a false impression of progress
• Does not reflect problem-solving nature of software
development – iterations of phases
• Integration is one big bang at the end
• Little opportunity for customer to preview the
system (until it may be too late)
 When to use the Waterfall Model
• Requirements are very well known
• Product definition is stable
• Technology is understood
• New version of an existing product
• Porting an existing product to a new platform.
Structured Evolutionary Prototyping Model

• Developers build a prototype during the

requirements phase
• Prototype is evaluated by end users
• Users give corrective feedback
• Developers further refine the prototype
• When the user is satisfied, the prototype code
is brought up to the standards needed for a
final product.
Structured Evolutionary Prototyping Steps
• A preliminary project plan is developed
• An partial high-level paper model is created
• The model is source for a partial requirements specification
• A prototype is built with basic and critical attributes
• The designer builds
– the database
– user interface
– algorithmic functions
• The designer demonstrates the prototype, the user evaluates
for problems and suggests improvements.
• This loop continues until the user is satisfied
 Structured Evolutionary Prototyping
Strengths
• Customers can “see” the system requirements as
they are being gathered
• Developers learn from customers
• A more accurate end product
• Unexpected requirements accommodated
• Allows for flexible design and development
• Steady, visible signs of progress produced
• Interaction with the prototype stimulates awareness
of additional needed functionality
 Structured Evolutionary Prototyping
Weaknesses
• Tendency to abandon structured program
development for “code-and-fix” development
• Bad reputation for “quick-and-dirty” methods
• Overall maintainability may be overlooked
• The customer may want the prototype delivered.
• Process may continue forever (scope creep)
 When to use
Structured Evolutionary Prototyping
• Requirements are unstable or have to be clarified
• As the requirements clarification stage of a waterfall
model
• Develop user interfaces
• Short-lived demonstrations
• New, original development
• With the analysis and design portions of object-
oriented development.
 Rapid Application Model (RAD)
• Requirements planning phase (a workshop utilizing
structured discussion of business problems)
• User description phase – automated tools capture
information from users
• Construction phase – productivity tools, such as code
generators, screen generators, etc. inside a time-box.
(“Do until done”)
• Cutover phase -- installation of the system, user
acceptance testing and user training
 RAD Strengths
• Reduced cycle time and improved productivity with
fewer people means lower costs
• Time-box approach mitigates cost and schedule risk
• Customer involved throughout the complete cycle
minimizes risk of not achieving customer satisfaction
and business needs
• Focus moves from documentation to code
(WYSIWYG).
• Uses modeling concepts to capture information
about business, data, and processes.
 RAD Weaknesses
• Accelerated development process must give quick
responses to the user
• Risk of never achieving closure
• Hard to use with legacy systems
• Requires a system that can be modularized
• Developers and customers must be committed to
rapid-fire activities in an abbreviated time frame.
 When to use RAD
• Reasonably well-known requirements
• User involved throughout the life cycle
• Project can be time-boxed
• Functionality delivered in increments
• High performance not required
• Low technical risks
• System can be modularized
Incremental SDLC Model
• Construct a partial
implementation of a total system
• Then slowly add increased
functionality
• The incremental model prioritizes
requirements of the system and
then implements them in groups.
• Each subsequent release of the
system adds function to the
previous release, until all
designed functionality has been
implemented.
 Incremental Model Strengths
• Develop high-risk or major functions first
• Each release delivers an operational product
• Customer can respond to each build
• Uses “divide and conquer” breakdown of tasks
• Lowers initial delivery cost
• Initial product delivery is faster
• Customers get important functionality early
• Risk of changing requirements is reduced
 Incremental Model Weaknesses
• Requires good planning and design
• Requires early definition of a complete and
fully functional system to allow for the
definition of increments
• Well-defined module interfaces are required
(some will be developed long before others)
• Total cost of the complete system is not lower
 When to use the Incremental Model
• Risk, funding, schedule, program complexity, or need
for early realization of benefits.
• Most of the requirements are known up-front but are
expected to evolve over time
• A need to get basic functionality to the market early
• On projects which have lengthy development
schedules
• On a project with new technology
Spiral SDLC Model
• Adds risk analysis, and
4gl RAD prototyping to
the waterfall model
• Each cycle involves the
same sequence of steps
as the waterfall process
model
 Spiral Quadrant
Determine objectives, alternatives and constraints

• Objectives: functionality, performance, hardware/software

interface, critical success factors, etc.
• Alternatives: build, reuse, buy, sub-contract, etc.
• Constraints: cost, schedule, interface, etc.
 Spiral Quadrant
Evaluate alternatives, identify and resolve risks

• Study alternatives relative to objectives and constraints

• Identify risks (lack of experience, new technology, tight
schedules, poor process, etc.
• Resolve risks (evaluate if money could be lost by continuing
system development
 Spiral Quadrant
Develop next-level product
• Typical activites:
– Create a design
– Review design
– Develop code
– Inspect code
– Test product
 Spiral Quadrant
Plan next phase
• Typical activities
– Develop project plan
– Develop configuration management plan
– Develop a test plan
– Develop an installation plan
 Spiral Model Strengths
• Provides early indication of insurmountable risks,
without much cost
• Users see the system early because of rapid
prototyping tools
• Critical high-risk functions are developed first
• The design does not have to be perfect
• Users can be closely tied to all lifecycle steps
• Early and frequent feedback from users
• Cumulative costs assessed frequently
 Spiral Model Weaknesses
• Time spent for evaluating risks too large for small or low-risk
projects
• Time spent planning, resetting objectives, doing risk analysis
and prototyping may be excessive
• The model is complex
• Risk assessment expertise is required
• Spiral may continue indefinitely
• Developers must be reassigned during non-development
phase activities
• May be hard to define objective, verifiable milestones that
indicate readiness to proceed through the next iteration
 When to use Spiral Model
• When creation of a prototype is appropriate
• When costs and risk evaluation is important
• For medium to high-risk projects
• Long-term project commitment unwise because of
potential changes to economic priorities
• Users are unsure of their needs
• Requirements are complex
• New product line
• Significant changes are expected (research and
exploration)
 Agile SDLC’s
• Speed up or bypass one or more life cycle
phases
• Usually less formal and reduced scope
• Used for time-critical applications
• Used in organizations that employ disciplined
methods
 Some Agile Methods
• Adaptive Software Development (ASD)
• Feature Driven Development (FDD)
• Crystal Clear
• Dynamic Software Development Method (DSDM)
• Rapid Application Development (RAD)
• Scrum
• Extreme Programming (XP)
• Rational Unify Process (RUP)
 Extreme Programming - XP
For small-to-medium-sized teams developing
software with vague or rapidly changing
requirements
Coding is the key activity throughout a software
project
• Communication among teammates is done
with code
• Life cycle and behavior of complex objects
defined in test cases – again in code
 XP Practices (1-6)
1. Planning game – determine scope of the next release by
combining business priorities and technical estimates
2. Small releases – put a simple system into production, then
release new versions in very short cycle
3. Metaphor – all development is guided by a simple shared
story of how the whole system works
4. Simple design – system is designed as simply as possible
(extra complexity removed as soon as found)
5. Testing – programmers continuously write unit tests;
customers write tests for features
6. Refactoring – programmers continuously restructure the
system without changing its behavior to remove duplication
and simplify
 XP Practices (7 – 12)
7. Pair-programming -- all production code is written with two
programmers at one machine
8. Collective ownership – anyone can change any code
anywhere in the system at any time.
9. Continuous integration – integrate and build the system
many times a day – every time a task is completed.
10. 40-hour week – work no more than 40 hours a week as a
rule
11. On-site customer – a user is on the team and available full-
time to answer questions
12. Coding standards – programmers write all code in
accordance with rules emphasizing communication through
the code
 XP is “extreme” because
Commonsense practices taken to extreme levels
• If code reviews are good, review code all the time (pair programming)
• If testing is good, everybody will test all the time
• If simplicity is good, keep the system in the simplest design that supports
its current functionality. (simplest thing that works)
• If design is good, everybody will design daily (refactoring)
• If architecture is important, everybody will work at defining and refining
the architecture (metaphor)
• If integration testing is important, build and integrate test several times a
day (continuous integration)
• If short iterations are good, make iterations really, really short (hours
rather than weeks)
 XP References
Online references to XP at

• http://www.extremeprogramming.org/
• http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?ExtremeProgrammingRoadmap
• http://www.xprogramming.com/
 Feature Driven Design (FDD)
Five FDD process activities
1. Develop an overall model – Produce class and sequence diagrams from chief
architect meeting with domain experts and developers.
2. Build a features list – Identify all the features that support requirements. The
features are functionally decomposed into Business Activities steps within
Subject Areas.
Features are functions that can be developed in two weeks and expressed in client terms with the
template: <action> <result> <object>
i.e. Calculate the total of a sale
3. Plan by feature -- the development staff plans the development sequence of
features
4. Design by feature -- the team produces sequence diagrams for the selected
features
5. Build by feature – the team writes and tests the code

http://www.nebulon.com/articles/index.html
Dynamic Systems Development Method (DSDM)

Applies a framework for RAD and short time

frames

Paradigm is the 80/20 rule

– majority of the requirements can be
delivered in a relatively short amount of time.
 DSDM Principles
1. Active user involvement imperative (Ambassador users)
2. DSDM teams empowered to make decisions
3. Focus on frequent product delivery
4. Product acceptance is fitness for business purpose
5. Iterative and incremental development - to converge on a
solution
6. Requirements initially agreed at a high level
7. All changes made during development are reversible
8. Testing is integrated throughout the life cycle
9. Collaborative and co-operative approach among all
stakeholders essential
 DSDM Lifecycle
• Feasibility study
• Business study – prioritized requirements
• Functional model iteration
– risk analysis
– Time-box plan
• Design and build iteration
• Implementation
 Adaptive SDLC
Combines RAD with software engineering best
practices
• Project initiation
• Adaptive cycle planning
• Concurrent component engineering
• Quality review
• Final QA and release
 Adaptive Steps
1. Project initialization – determine intent of project
2. Determine the project time-box (estimation
duration of the project)
3. Determine the optimal number of cycles and the
time-box for each
4. Write an objective statement for each cycle
5. Assign primary components to each cycle
6. Develop a project task list
7. Review the success of a cycle
8. Plan the next cycle
 Tailored SDLC Models
• Any one model does not fit all projects
• If there is nothing that fits a particular project, pick a
model that comes close and modify it for your needs.
• Project should consider risk but complete spiral too
much – start with spiral & pare it done
• Project delivered in increments but there are serious
reliability issues – combine incremental model with
the V-shaped model
• Each team must pick or customize a SDLC model to fit
its project
 Agile Web references
DePaul web site has links to many Agile references
http://se.cs.depaul.edu/ise/agile.htm
 Quality – the degree to which the software
satisfies stated and implied requirements

• Absence of system crashes

• Correspondence between the software and the users’
expectations
• Performance to specified requirements

Quality must be controlled because it lowers production speed,

increases maintenance costs and can adversely affect business
 Quality Assurance Plan

• The plan for quality assurance activities should be in writing

• Decide if a separate group should perform the quality
assurance activities
• Some elements that should be considered by the plan are:
defect tracking, unit testing, source-code tracking, technical
reviews, integration testing and system testing.
 Quality Assurance Plan

• Defect tracing – keeps track of each defect found, its source,

when it was detected, when it was resolved, how it was
resolved, etc
• Unit testing – each individual module is tested
• Source code tracing – step through source code line by line
• Technical reviews – completed work is reviewed by peers
• Integration testing -- exercise new code in combination with
code that already has been integrated
• System testing – execution of the software for the purpose of
finding defects.