Battery Connected Systems

Grid Connected Systems

 MODULE 1

Solar Resource and Radiation

Do seasons happen at the same
time everywhere in the world?
No
 Quantifying solar radiation
• Radiation emitted from the sun is fairly consistent there is significant
variation in the radiation received at the Earth’s surface.
Hour of the day
• Solar array designers need to be able to quantify the radiation in a
given site throughout the year.
Peak sun hours (PSH)
• The number of PSH for the day is the number of hours for which
power at the rate of 1kW/m2 would give an equivalent amount of
energy to the total energy for that day.
• Insolation: The amount of solar radiation incident on a surface over a
period of time kW/m2/day.
• Irradiance: The total quantity solar radiation incident on a surface at
any particular point in time measured in W/m2.
• Irradiation: the process by which an object is exposed to radiation. 
Question?
• If sunlight is received at an irradiance of 1000W/ m2 for 2 hours,
600W/ m2 for 1.5 hours and 200W/ m2 for 1 hour, find the PSH
received in that day?

Total Wh/m2 = 1000*2+ 600*1.5 +200*2

= 3100Wh/m2
= 3.1 PSH

PSH = kWh/m2
The effect of the Earth’s atmosphere
on solar radiation
• Irradiance is a combination of direct and diffuse radiation
• That proportion of solar radiation which is scattered, absorbed or re-
emitted in the atmosphere is diffuse radiation.
• Air mass will also affect the irradiance at a location.
• The greater the air mass, the higher the chance of light being reflected or
scattered, meaning there will be less solar radiation reaching the Earth’s
surface.
• Air mass of 1.5 is the standard condition at which solar modules are rated.
• Air mass zero refers to air mass in space; air mass one corresponds to
conditions when the sun is directly overhead.
• Regions outside the tropics will never experience air mass one, as the sun is
never directly overhead.
Sun geometry

• Because of the Earth’s orbit and rotation, the position of the sun
relative to a solar array is constantly changing.
SOLAR ALTITUDE:

AZIMUTH:
1. What is the range of solar azimuth?
2. What is the angle range of altitude?
• The sun’s altitude is highest on the summer solstice and lowest on the
winter solstice.
• Solstices is an event occurring when the sun appears to reach its most
northerly or southerly excursion relative to celestial equator on the
celestial sphere.
• The midpoints between the two solstices are known as the equinoxes
In the northern hemisphere solar arrays are normally installed to
face south as the sun is always in the southern sky.
 SUN PATH DIAGRAM
The sun path diagram is composed of:
a) azimuth angles, represented on the circumference of the
diagram;
b) altitude angles, represented by concentric circles;
c) Sun path lines from east to west for different dates in the
year;
d) time of day lines crossing the sunpath lines;
e) location information that refers to latitude.
 Geometry for installing solar arrays

• Solar modules should be installed so that as much radiation as possible is

collected.

• The orientation : The direction the solar module is facing

• The tilt angle: Angle between Base of the solar module and the horizontal.
• To point a module directly towards the sun at all times would require a solar
tracking frame to be installed.

• This can be expensive, so it is not common practice for most PV

applications.
PV Industry and Technology
Solar Cells are made from semiconducting materials
• Semiconductors
• The most common semiconductor material used for electronics components
is silicon.
• Semiconductors are used frequently in electronics, including PV cells, light-
emitting diodes (LEDs) and microchips, diodes
• Cell efficiency : Output power/Input power
• Irradiance = 1000W/ m2
• Solar cells has efficiency= 20%
• Output power = ?
• Silicon which is extracted from quatzite (silicon dioxide)
Mainstream technologies
• Monocrystalline Silicon
• Polycrystalline Silicon
• Amorphous silicon
Polycrystalline Silicon Monocrystalline Silicon
Single cell is made of many silicon ingots Single cell made of one silicon ingot
Less conductivity Higher conductivity
Comparatively Lesser cost Higher cost
Commonly used Used for special cases were cost is not a barrier
Manufacturing process is easier Difficult to process
Lesser efficiency Comparatively higher efficient
Thin film solar cells
 Thin film solar cells/Amorphous silicon cells

• Second generation solar cells made of multiple thin layers/films of PV materials.

(each layer of few micro meter to nano metre)

• Layers are 300 times less thicker than crystalline cells

• The thin layers are spread on substrates including plastic, glass or metal.
• The most common materials are made out of cadmium telluride (CdTe) and
copper indium (gallium) diselenide (CIS or CIGS).
• Not suited for residential and efficiency is lesser
• Suited to high volume manufacturing.

• Visit for more details: https://solarfeeds.com/wiki/thin-film-solar/

Advantages of Thin Film solar panels

• Mass-production is simple. This makes them potentially cheaper to

manufacture than crystalline-based solar cells.
• Their homogeneous appearance makes them look more appealing.
• Can be made flexible, which opens up many new potential applications.
• High temperatures and shading have less impact on 
solar panel performance.
• In situations where space is not an issue, thin-film solar panels can make
sense.
• Thin-films are more flexible and lighter in weight
• Developing integrated photovoltaics and as semi-transparent
Disadvantages of Thin Film solar panels

• Not useful for in most residential situations. They are cheap, but
they also require a lot of space.
• Lesser eficiency
• Thin-film solar panels tend to degrade faster than mono-crystalline
and polycrystalline solar panels, which is why they typically come
with a shorter warranty.
Contacts between cells
 Contacts
• To connect cells to modules , they need electrical connections.
• Metal conducting strips are used that collect electrons produced in the
cell
• These metal strips are known as contacts

CONTACT TYPES:
• Screen Printing( commonly used due to its simplicity and low cost)
• Rear or back contacts
• Buried contact solar cell
a) screen printing
The metal is simply printed onto the cell.
• Commonly used method
• Very reliable
• Can perform with Efficiency 12–15 per cent.
• Several factors need to be balanced when using screen printing:
 If there is too much space between the contacts, the cell will be less
efficient.
 the area covered by the contacts should be small
B) Rear or back contacts.
• Cell wiring is done in the back side of the cell.
• Helps increases the working cell area
• 18–23 per cent efficient
• There is no metal on the front of the cell, which means the whole cell is
producing electricity.
C) Buried contact solar cells (BCSC).
• This method uses small laser grooves which are cut in the cell and the
metal is inserted into the groove
• No metal contact are visible
• Sunlight is not blocked
Buying solar modules

Factors to consider when purchasing a PV system

• A good system should not only physically last

• It should work effectively during that time.
• Solar modules are given with a manufacturers warranty of 25 years
Standards
• IEC 61215 : Crystalline silicon terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules
• IEC 61646 Crystalline thin-film terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules
• IEC 61730 Photovoltaic (PV) module safety qualification –
Requirements for construction and requirements for testing, ageing
etc.
Introduction to solar panel certifications

• Certifications generally ensure that modules adhere to all relevant standards in

addition to the specific photovoltaics standards; examples range from wind
loading to salt mist corrosion resistance.
• The most common certifications are:
1. CE
2. NRTL
3. UL
1. CE marking: The CE mark stands for conformité européenne.
• The CE marking is mandatory on modules sold and installed in the
EU(European Union)
• All 28 countries of the EU : Iceland, Norway, Switzerland , Turkey etc
• By using this mark the manufacturer is declaring that their module for
its safety, quality and environmental protection legislation.
•
2. NRTL(Nationally Recoganized Testing Laboratory)

In the US, without a NRTL mark you:

• Are not allowed to connect solar panels to the grid
• Will not receive Government rebates & tax incentives
• Will not receive coverage from your insurance 
3. Underwriters Laboratory (UL): an
independent, privately held product
safety testing and certification company.

• The Underwriters Laboratory is a US-

based testing facility.
• Modules bearing a UL mark have been
tested for compliance to IEC standards and
local standards (depending on the country
code next to the UL mark)
 Warranties
• PV modules are typically supplied with three levels of product warranty:
1. 1-, 2- or 3-year warranty on the physical system of the module
i.e. the frame, encapsulant, glass, module junction box etc.;
2. 10–12 year warranty => module will produce 90% of its rated output;
3. 20–25 year warranty => module will produce 80 % of its rated output.
Emerging technologies
• Besides well-established mainstream technologies many new
technologies are emerging. They are
1. Dye-sensitized solar cells
2. Sliver cells
3. Heterojunction with intrinsic thin layer (HIT) photovoltaic cells
4. III-V Semiconductors
5. Solar concentrators
Dye-sensitized solar cells
• Dye solar cells are still technologically immature.
• In the group of thin film solar cells and do not use silicon.
• Dye solar cells use titanium dioxide
• Low cost than other solar cells
• Work better in low light.
• Dye solar cells are transparent and can be produced in many different
colours, making them ideal for architectural applications as windows.
• Dye solar cells also have potential in military applications as they can
be made in camouflage patterns.
• Highest Efficiency obtained :12 percent.
• Low artificial light
Sliver cells

• Sliver cells were developed at the Australian National University and

are very thin mono-crystalline silicon solar cells.
• They are unique as silicon cells because they are bifacial
• Can be made transparent
• Sliver technology has achieved cell efficiencies of over 19 per cent
and module efficiencies of 13.8 per cent.
• The technology is in its early stages of commercialization but shows a
lot of potential for applications in building-integrated photovoltaics
Heterojunction with intrinsic thin layer (HIT) photovoltaic cells

• HIT modules use both crystalline silicon solar cells and amorphous
silicon thin film technology
•  HIT solar cell is composed of a mono thin crystalline silicon wafer
surrounded by ultra-thin amorphous silicon layers.
•  The HIT cell has a lower temperature coefficient compared to c-Si cell
technology.
• Module efficiencies obtained is17 per cent and cell efficiencies of 22
per cent.
 III-V Semiconductors/ Extrinsic Semiconductor Multi-junction Solar
Cells

• III-V or extrinsic semiconductor solar cells use an element from group III of
the periodic table and an element from group V
• eg:GaAs, InP, GaP,
• These solar cells are commonly multi-junction so they are in fact many
layers of solar cells, which will collect different colours of visible light.
• They also frequently use advanced solar concentrator technology to
maximize incoming solar radiation.
• Highest recorded efficiency of 41.6%
• Used in space applications
• III-V compound semiconductor is an alloy, containing elements from
groups III and V in the periodic table.
 Solar concentrators
• Solar concentrators are used to increase the intensity of light hitting the cell
so that it will generate more electricity
• Common type is lense or reflective troughs used to focus light.
• Solar concentrators are advantageous because they increase the power output
so that the system requires fewer solar cells
• Many of these cells require a cooling system
PV Cells, Modules & Arrays
PV Cells, Modules & Arrays
Array / panels
• Each type of PV cell is unique and has its own individual
characteristics
• It is very imporrant to be aware of this when designing an array as the
characterisrics of the cells in one type of module can affect the power
output of the other modules connected to it.
Key terminologies

• Open circuit:
• Short circuit:
• Open circuit voltage:
• Short circuit current:
• Maximum power point:
PMAX=VMAX *IMAX
 Graphic representations of PV cell performance

• A voltage-current (or I- V) curve.

• Tracks the PV cell’s performance ,Voc, Isc and Pmax.

• A power curve
• It is used to find the maximum power point.
• When the power curve superimposed on the I-V curve for the same cell, it is
very clear where the maximum power point lies
• Connecting cells with dramatically different characteristics together will have
a large (generally negative) effect on the power output of the PV module
 From PV cells to a module

• PV Module : PV cells of identical characteristics are wired together in series to

create a module.

• PV Array: PV Modules arranging is series and parallel will give PV Array

Specification sheets
• PV modules purchased from reputable manufacturers should come
with specification sheets
• A data sheet includes important technical information required to
design and install a PV array.
• It provides basic information about efficiency, rated power and
physical size
 Creating a string of modules

• A string comprises a number of PV modules connected in series.

• The electrical characteristics of PV modules are the same as PV cells in it.
• ie,The output voltage of the string will be the sum of the output voltages of all
the modules
• The output current of the string will be the lowest output current of any module.
• Modules can also be connected in parallel.
• In this case the current output of the modules will add instead of the voltage.
• The output voltage is that of a single module.
 Creating an array

• Array designers will connect PV modules using a combination of series and

parallel to produce the output current and voltage suitable to a market
application.
• Modules are typically connected in series to form a string and these strings
are connected in parallel to form an array.
• PV arrays produce DC power while the mains require AC power.
• An inverter is required to convert the DC solar power to AC power and the
array is wired in such a way that the maximum power point voltage of the
array lies within the range of the grid interactive inverter
 Photovoltaic array performance
• The performance of a PV array is affected by a variety of factors:
• Temperature, Irradiance and Shading.
1. Irradiance
• The amount of solar radiation hitting the
cell will largely determine its power output.
• An array can be described as a 1.5kWp array –
meaning that PV is installed to provide a 1.5kW peak
• Using this information and local solar insolation data,
it is possible to estimate the output of an array.
2. Temperature
• The solar radiation hitting the modules heats up the modules.
• As temperature increases, the Voc decreases rapidly
while Isc increases slowly.
• Pout= Voc*Isc =>decreases with temp.
• When designing systems, engineers will often use the following approximation
cell temperature = ambient temperature + 25°C
• Likewise, as cold temperatures can increase the power output due to the
voltage increase.
• The maximum voltage threshold of the system needs to be accurately
calculated to ensure that this voltage cannot exceed the inverter’s ratings.
• The installation of a PV array can directly affect the operating temperature of
the array itself.
• One contributing factor is when an array is installed flush to a roof surface –
meaning that there is limited air flow across the back of the modules to
moderate the module temperature.
Cooling fans for roof mounted panels
3. Shading
Shading
• PV cells require sunlight in order to produce electricity.
• Shading can result in a large reduction in power output
• If a cell receives no sunlight due to shading it will not produce any power
(even a small area of cell shading can result in a large reduction in power
output).
• Cells in modules are normally connected in series, so when one or several
cells are shaded, the current output of the module will be reduced.
• If the module is part of an array, then the current output of the array will also
be reduced.
• This will also occur if a cell is damaged and unable to produce power.
Effect due to hotspot heating
• Shading of the array can lead to irreversible damage.
• Hot spot heating occurs when a cell is shaded such that its power output is
reduced and most of the current being produced by the other (unshaded) cells
is forced through that one cell causing it to heat up.
• This often leads to cell damage (cracking) and can also damage the glass
encapsulation.
• Diodes can be used to mitigate temporary shading (i.e. leaves that may have
fallen on the array).
• When a cell is shaded or damaged, a diode can be used to give current another
path to follow.
• It will skip the damaged or shaded cell completely and have minimum impact
on the power output of the array.
• This kind of diode is referred to as a bypass diode and manufacturers typically
install one, two or three bypass diodes per module
Thankyou