Lakshmi.

P
2nd semester Ph.D
Hypothesis
“Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected relationship between
an independent and dependent variable.”(Creswell, 1994)
ƒ“A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more
variables”. (Kerlinger, 1956)

Principal instrument in research.

Main function is to suggest new experiments and observations.
In social science research hypothesis testing is often used as a strategy for deciding
whether a sample data offer such support for a hypothesis that generalisation
can be made
1.A hypothesis may be precisely defined as a tentative
propositionsuggested as a solution to a problem or as an
explanation of some phenomenon. (Ary, Jacobs and
Razavieh, 1984)
2.Hypothesis relates theory to observation and
observation to theory. (Ary, Jacobs and Razavieh, 1984)
3.Hypotheses are relational propositions. (Kerlinger,
1956)
Nature of Hypothesis
ƒThe hypothesis is a clear statement of what is intended to be
investigated. It should be specified before research is conducted and
openly stated in reporting the results. This allows to:
1.Identify the research objectives
2.Identify the key abstract concepts involved in the research
3.Identify its relationship to both the problem statement and the
literature review
ƒA problem cannot be scientifically solved unless it is reduced to
hypothesis form
ƒIt is a powerful tool of advancement of knowledge, consistent with
existing knowledge and conducive to further enquiry
Hypothesis is a tentative statement showing the
relationship between two or more variables, the
reliability and validity of which is to be tested and
verified. It expresses the nature and degree of
relationship between variables.
Hypotheses are –
• Assumptions
• Tentative statements
• Propositions
• Answering the questions
• Proposed solution to a problem
• Statements which are to be tested
• To be accepted of rejected
• To be verified empirically on the basis of sample
A mere assumption or some supposition to be proved
or disproved.
Eg: X is dependent on Y.
Consumption of health drinks has an influence on
growth of children .
Difference between Hypotheses and Problems
Problem is a question and is not Hypothesis can be testable
testable
Relation between variables in problem Relation between variables in problem
statements: statements:

Is A related to B? If A, then B
How are A and B related to C? If A & B then C.
How is A related to B under conditions If A, then B under conditions C and D.
C and D?
A predictive statement,capable of being tested with
scientific methods,relates an independent variable to
dependant variable.
Eg:Students who receive counselling will show a
greater increase in creativity than students not
reciving counselling.
A hypothesis states what we are looking for and it is a
proposition which can be put to a test to determine
its validity.
Hypothesis needs to be structured before the data-
gathering and interpretation phase of the research:
•A well-grounded hypothesis indicates that the
researcher has sufficient knowledge in the area to
undertake the investigation.
•The hypothesis gives direction to the collection and
interpretation of data.
Types of Hypothesis
Null hypothesis(Ho)
If we are comparing method A with method B about its
superiority and if we proceed on the assumption that
both methods are equally good,then this assumption
is termed as null hypothesis,expressed as Ho.
If we think that method A is superior or method B is
inferior then it is known as alternative
hypothesis,expressed as H1.
EXAMPLE

In a clinical trial of a new drug, the null hypothesis might be that the
new drug is no better, on average, than the current drug. We would
write H0: there is no difference between the two drugs on average.
The alternative hypothesis might be that: the new drug has a different
effect, on average, compared to that of the current drug. We would
write H1: the two drugs have different effects, on average.
the new drug is better, on average, than the current drug. We would
write H1: the new drug is better than the current drug, on average.
Descriptive Hypothesis – Describing the characteristics of a
variable (may be an object, person, organisation, event,
and situation)
Eg. Employment opportunity of commerce graduates is
more than the arts students.
Relational Hypothesis – Establishes relationship between
two variables. It may be positive, negative or nil
relationship. • Eg. High income leads to high savings
 Causal Hypothesis – The change in one variable leads to change in
another variable i.e. Dependent and independent variables, one
variable is a cause and the other one is the effect .
 Eg:As X increses Y also increses.

 Statistical Hypothesis – association or difference between two

variables are hypothesized
Formation of hypothesis
Generation of Research
Hypothesis Problem
statements become
research hypotheses
when constructs are
operationalized
Identify the subject area.Eg:Employee
satisfaction,Brand preference,Effectiveness of
advertisement,Online Jobsites
Identify the variables
Eg:Incentives and employee satisfaction,celebrity
endorsement and effectiveness of
advertisement,societal class and brand preference
Research Problem
In a research process the first and most crucial step is
identification and analysis of research problem.
Selecting and properly defining a research problem.
Main function is to decide what you want to find out
about. -
Sources of research problems Research in social
sciences revolves around four Ps:
• People- a group of individuals .
• Problems- examine the existence of certain issues or
problems relating to their lives; to ascertain attitude
of a group of people towards an issue.
• Programs- to evaluate the effectiveness of an
intervention .
• Phenomena- to establish the existence of a regularity.
Selecting the problem
Must be carefully selected.
1.Subject which is overdone should not be normally
chosen,for it will be a difficult task to throw any new
light in such a case.
2.Controversial subject should not become the choice of
an average researcher.
3.Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
4.The subject selected for research must be familiar and
feasible.
5.The selection of the problem must be preceded by a
preliminary study.
Necesssity of defining the problem

The problem to be investigated must be defined

unambiguously for that will help to determine
relevant data from irrelevant data.
A proper definition of the research problem will
enable the researcher to be on the track where as an
ill defined problem may create hurdles.
Technique involved in defining a problem.
Defining a problem involves the task of lying down
boundaries within which it is to be studied

The technique for defining the research problem

involves the following steps
1.Statement of the problem May contain various
in a general way. ambiguities which must
The researcher must be resolved later.
immerse thoroughly in the
subject matter to pose the
relevant research problem.
2.Understanding the nature of the problem.
The best way of understanding the problem is to
discuss it with those who first raised it in order to find
out how the problem originally came about and what
objectives in view.For a better understanding of the
nature of the problem involve ,he can enter into
disussion with those who have a good knowledge of
the problem concerned or similar other problems.
3.Surveying the available literature
All available literature concerning the problem must
be surveyed and examined.
Researcher must be well conversant with relevant
theories in the field,Reports and records.
4.Developing the ideas through
discussions
Discussion often produces useful information
The researcher must discuss the problem with his
colleagues and others who have enough experience in
the same area or in working of similiar problems.This
is quite often known as experience survey.
Identifying Variables and concepts
The definition of a variable:
An image, perception or concept that can be measured –
hence capable of taking on different values- is called a
variable.
Effect of advertisement,Market share of product A,Job
satisfaction.
Concepts are mental images or perceptions and therefore
their meaning varies markedly from individual to
individual.
concepts Variables
-Subjective impression Measurable
Excellent -gender (male/female)
High achiever -age (x years y months)
Rich -weight ( --kg)
Satisfaction - height ( -- cms)
Domestic violence -Religion
-Income
Concepts, indicators and variables:
If you are using a concept in your study, you need to
consider its operationalisation- that is, how it will be
measured. For this, you need to identify indicators- a set
of criteria reflective of the concept- which can then be
converted into variables. The choice of indicators for a
concept might vary with researchers, but those selected
must have a logical link with the concept.
A concept cannot be measured whereas a variable can
be subjected to measurement by crude/refined or
subjective/objective units of measurement. It is
therefore important for the concept to be converted
into variables .
5.Rephrasing the research problem
The researcher must rephrase the research problem
into a working proposition.
Characteristics of a problem
1.Relationship between two or more variables.
2.Stated clearly ,usually in a question form.
Eg:Is there any relationship between racial
background and dropout rate?
3.Should be possible to collect data(Empirical
testability)
4.Should not represent a moral or ethical position.
(Questions about ideas or values)
Illustration

“Why is productivity in Japan so much higher than

India?”
Ambiguities
1.What sort of productivity is being referred to?
2.With what industries the same is related?
3.With what period of time the productivity is being
talked about?
“To what extent did labour productivity in 1971 to 1980
in Japan exceed that of India in respect of 15 selected
manufacturing industries?What factors were responsible
for the productivity differentials between two countries by
industries?”
Reference:
1.Kothari.C.R,Garg(2014),Research methodology,New
age Publishers,New Delhi,pp 22-28,179-181.
2.Singh Yogesh Kumar(2006)Fundamentals of Research
methodology and statistics,New age Publishers,New
Delhi.pp 54-74
Widescreen Presentation
This template is formatted Even if you do not have a
with a 16:9 “widescreen” widescreen display, you can
aspect ratio. It’s a great way still create and present 16:9
to take advantage of slides. PowerPoint’s Slide
laptops, televisions and Show always resizes your
projectors equipped with slides to fit any screen.
widescreen displays.
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Side by side material fits
more naturally.
Widescreen adds drama
to graphics and images.
Widescreen Graphics

Even a single
graphic, such as a
chart, can be
presented more
dramatically in
widescreen.
Widescreen
Pictures
Pictures can also be
presented more dramatically
in widescreen.
Creating 16:9 Presentations
To setup a widescreen
presentation, do one of the
following: Important: Always start with your slide
 Start with this template. Simply size set to the aspect ratio you intend to
use. If you change the slide size after
delete the example slides and add you’ve created some slides, your pictures
your own content. and other graphics will be resized. This
could potentially distort their appearance.
 Or, go to the Design tab and
open the Page Setup Dialog.
Click the Slide Size dropdown
and pick On-screen Show (16:9)
(Note: we also support 16:10,
which is a common widescreen
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Slide Show Tips
 To present in true widescreen, you’ll need a
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 Common computer widescreen resolutions
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 Widescreen Test Pattern (16:9)

Aspect Ratio
Test
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4x3

16x9