FORENSIC

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(1.1)
“Don’t let what
you cannot do
interfere with
what you can
do.”
John Wooden
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What is Forensic
Chemistry?
Introduction
The word chemistry
was derived from the
Greek word “khemeia”
meaning “cast together” or
“pour together” and the
word forensic comes from
the Latin term “forensis”
meaning “of or before the
forum”.

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 Forensic Chemistry is defined as that branch of
chemistry which deals with the application of chemical
principles in the solution of crimes. It plays an essential
role in the speedy investigation and in the
administration of justice. It is determined that this
science has an advantage over extracted confessions,
eyewitnesses and other circumstantial evidence that is
why the value of the findings of a chemist in convicting
the guilty, as well as in clearing the innocent suspect has
long been recognized not only in the criminal
investigation and detection but also in courts of law.

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 Scope of Forensic Chemistry
✘ It includes the chemical side of criminal
investigation.
✘ It includes the analysis of any material the
quality of which may give rise to legal
proceedings.
✘ It is not limited to purely chemical questions
involved in legal proceedings.
✘ It has evaded other branches of forensic sciences,
most notably, legal medicine, ballistics,
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questioned documents, dactyloscopy and
A Brief History
of Forensic
Chemistry

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 The history of forensic chemistry is holding the facts of
methods developed by a scientist for the identification and
analysis of poisons, which were used for the commission of
murders and execution. The pieces of evidence portraying the
use of poisons come from the early Egyptians, Romans and
Greeks. Democritus was probably the first chemist to study
poisons, and he communicated some of his findings
to Hippocrates. The philosopher Socrates was condemned to
death by drinking hemlock .

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 Before the development of systematic, scientific
criminal investigation, guilt was determined largely by
circumstantial evidence and hearsay. Arsenic was a
popular poison in Roman times. It was referred to as
inheritance powder in early France. The Blandy trial
of 1752 was the first instance of an actual chemical
test for poison, and the Marsh test, developed in
1836, was the first reliable analysis that could show
scientifically that arsenic was present in the body of a
victim.
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 Until the early 19th century, there were no
methods to accurately determine if a particular
chemical was present and culprits engaged in
poisoning were rarely punished for their crimes.
In 1836, one of the first major contributions to
forensic chemistry was introduced by British
chemist James Marsh when he created the
Marsh Test, which was used for arsenic
detection and it was subsequently used in a
10 successful murder trial.
Important Personalities in
the Field of Forensic
Chemistry
 ✘ Hans Gross
In 1893, Hans Gross, an
Austrian magistrate, published his
Handbook for Coroners, Police
Officials, and Military Policemen,
the first work to suggest that other
fields of science be integrated into
police work in order to aid crime
detection. He is known for
creating the field of criminology.

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Mathieu Orfila
Considered the founding father of modern
toxicology, French doctor Orfila published his
"Treatise on Poisons," an exhaustive reference, in
1817. Among other major contributions, Orfila
developed a highly sensitive test for the presence
of arsenic, which was actually used during his
lifetime, at one point to convict a woman accused
of poisoning her husband. Orfila was also the first
chemist to successfully classify different
chemicals into categories such as corrosives, 
narcotics, and astringents.
Jean Stas
He developed a valid method for
detecting vegetable alkaloids in
human tissue in 1850 and his
method was quickly adopted and
used successfully in court to
convict Count Hippolyte de
Bocarme of murdering his brother-
in-law by nicotine poisoning.
Makhail Tsvet
In 1906, he invented the paper
chromatography, which was found to be
useful for the separation of individual
substances from the mixtures. He is
known as the father of chromatography.
 ✘ Carl Wilhelm Scheele

He is the first to
develop a chemical test to
detect arsenic in corpses in
1773. 

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 ✘ Karl Landsteiner
He received the Nobel
Prize in 1930 for his work
on blood groups. He was
the first one to classify
human blood into various
groups. This later went on
to give significant leads
during criminal
investigations from the
examination of blood.
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 ✘ Valentin Ross
A German chemist who
further elaborated the
work of Carl Scheele in
1806 to detect poison in
stomach walls.

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Roles of Forensic Chemist in the Scientific Investigation
The forensic chemist plays an important role in the scientific criminal
investigation; he may be called upon to aid an investigation in:

•Conducts qualitative and quantitative determination of abused drugs as well

as volatile substances.
•Conducts chemical examination of explosives and/ or explosive ingredients.
•Conducts examination of paraffin cast and firearms to determine the
presence of gunpowder nitrates.
•Conducts gunpowder examination on clothing for possible gunshot range.
•Conducts chemico-toxicological examination of human internal organs,
gastric contents, blood water, food sample and other substances.
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• Conducts examination of fake products in cases of unfair trade
competitions.
• Conducts blood alcohol determinations.
• Examines urine samples and other body fluids for the presence of
abused drugs.
• Conducts researches related to cases being examined.
• Testifies and give gives expert opinion in court.
• Gives lectures on Forensic Chemistry and Chemical-toxicology to
various schools, universities, police training centers and investigating
units.
• Responds to queries of all investigating units and render expert
opinion on matters related to the application of chemical principles for
the purpose of assisting investigators to develop investigative leads.
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 The work of a Forensic Chemist is divided
into four stages, namely:

1. Collection or reception of the specimen to

be examined.
2. The actual examination\
3. The communication of the results of the
examination
4. Court Appearance

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 1. Collection of Specimen to be
Examined
The proper collection, preservation and
transportation of specimens are essential in the
investigation of a crime. There is a wide range
of specimens to be collected in order to assist
the criminal investigation process. When
collecting specimens for forensic analysis, the
following should be strictly adhered to:

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✘ Avoid contamination
Ensure that specimens are not contaminated by other materials.
Wear gloves at all times. Modern DNA assay systems are very
sensitive and may detect small amounts of extraneous material.
✘ Collect early
Try to collect forensic specimen as soon as possible. The
likelihood of collecting evidentiary material decreases within
24 hours of the assault; after 72 hours, yields are reduced
considerably.
✘ Handle appropriately
Ensure that specimens are packed, stored and transported
correctly. As a general rule, fluids should be refrigerated;
anything else should be kept dry.
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✘ Label accurately
All specimens must be clearly labelled with the patient’s
name, type of specimen and the date and time of collection.
✘ Ensure security
Authorized people should be entrusted with specimen and it
should be packed to ensure that they are secure and tamper
proof.
✘ Maintain continuity
Details of the transfer of the specimen between individuals
should be recorded.
✘ Document collection
Compile an itemized list in reports of all specimen collected
24 and details of when and to whom they were transferred.
 2. Actual Examination of the Specimen
•Scrutinize the item carefully and write down in the
laboratory logbook/ record book a complete description
of the external appearance including the manner in which
it is secured and the particulars of the sealing. If possible
take a photograph of the specimen including the inner
wrappings and take note of its descriptions. A detailed
description of the appearance of the contents of the
package should be noted and recorded. All wrappers
should be kept and preserved since questions concerning
them may be raised in court during trial.
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 • Measure or weigh the object and all measurements
and weights should be entered in the laboratory
logbook/ record book. The specimen should then be
placed in the proper container or wrapper and must
be kept in the proper evidence room.
• Perform physical, chemical and confirmatory tests.

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 3. Communication of the Results of the
Examination
The results of the examination conducted should
be communicated with the requesting party in the
form of a written report which must include an
enumeration of facts on the specimen received for
examination which detailed description of the
packaging, sealing and labelling, date of receipt and
from whom it was received, the purpose of the
examination, the finding and conclusion.

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 4. Court Appearance
The written report of the Forensic Chemist is
usually supplemented by testimonial evidence in a
later date if the case is brought to court or the
fiscal’s office. Since the testimonial evidence may
be given weeks, months or even years after the
examination and the written report have been
made, it is not only permissible but indispensable
that the chemist should refresh his memory by
referring to his laboratory record book before
28 presenting himself in the court.
 Six Golden Rules in the Practice of
Forensic Chemistry
•Use imagination
An expert with a wide and uncontrollable imagination is considered as the most
dangerous creature. Though his being imaginative is sometimes useful, an expert
witness does not have to be solely imaginative but he has to be skilled in the field of
forensic science. He must bear witness within the limits of science.
•Avoid complicated theories
The simplest explanation is fundamentally the right one. Interpretation of results
is often the most difficult part of the expert’s task that is why a wide knowledge and
scientific experience are the essential elements to obtain the right forensic examination
results.

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 •Go Slowly
Good work cannot be hurried, therefore, take all the time necessary to make the
case complete no matter how urgent it may appear.
•Be thorough
Make careful and minute examination of everything and do not be satisfied with a
quantitative one is possible. It always pays to do too much rather than too little and it is
difficult to foresee what will or will not be required in court.
•Take notes
Keep a full neat and clean record of everything seen and done.
•Consult others
Many cases will lead the expert into paths with which he is not familiar and when
this happens he should consult those who know better.

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DNA
 It is functionally the hereditary
material that contains the genetic
information necessary for the duplication
of cells and for the production of proteins.
Chemically, it is an acid, is phosphorous
rich, it contains a deoxyribose sugar, it
contains the four bases: adenine (A),
thymine (T), cytosine (C) and guanine (G).
It is a double helix composed of two
complimentary strands.
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 During the mid-1980’s, DNA was first
recognized as having application to forensic
science by the British molecular biologist Alex
Jeffreys. From work in his laboratory, as well
from others, it is realized that DNA at a vast
number of sites was unique between individuals.
As such, DNA has been utilized as a new
powerful tool for human identification. It offers
the following advantages:

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 1. DNA is stable- it can be isolated from material
that is months or even years old.
2. DNA can be obtained from a wide variety of
biological sources like blood, semen, hair,
saliva and bone.
3. DNA can be replicated in the laboratory from
a very small amount of initial material through
the process of POLYMERASE CHAIN
REACTION
4. DNA shows greater variability from one
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individual to the next.
Facts About DNA
 ✘ DNA- (deoxyribonucleic acid) It is a
chemical substance found in all cells
whose composition have been passed from
parents to their children. All cells in the
body have the same DNA composition
except individual egg and sperm cells.
✘ BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCES that can be
submitted for DNA analysis:

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 a. Blood and bloodstains
b. Semen and seminal stain
c. Hairs with follicle or roots
d. Saliva or buccal swab
e. Bones and organs
f. Tissues and cells

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 ✘ LINE UP CASES where DNA analysis can
be of help:
a. Sexual assault cases like rape
b. Murder
c. Homicide
d. Extortion
e. Paternity Case
f. Identification of remains from
g. Robbery mass disaster cases and missing
h. Hit and run cases persons
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How DNA analysis is used to identify with
accuracy the perpetrators of the crime?

Human tissues such as hair, blood, semen are

often left in place where a crime has been
committed. By careful collection, such bits of
tissues, hairs in kidnapper’s lairs, bloodstains in
clothing associated with murder, saliva stains in
cigarette butts, stamps, envelopes associated
with extortion have all been used to help identify
criminals.
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 What not to do with a DNA sample? 
1. First and foremost, Never handle sample without
gloves. 
2. Never dissolve DNA in water for long term use. 
3. Never precipitate DNA in methanol. 
4. Never boil the DNA sample it will denature the DNA,
also at a higher temperature, the DNA can be damaged. 
5. Never mix the DNA sample with other chemicals. 
6. Never dissolve DNA in tap water. 

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 7. Do not reuse collection tubes for DNA sample collection, further,
never store DNA in used or washed tubes. 
8. Never reuse plasticware and glassware for DNA storage
procedure. 
9. At a time of use never heat the DNA sample for thawing, put it at
room temperature or thaw it with hands but with gloves. 
10. While using a stored DNA sample, never use it directly for
experiments, quantify it before use. 
11. Check the quality and quantity of DNA periodically, if
deterioration reported, immediately inform the responsible
authority. 
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 Blood
It has been
called the
circulating tissue
of the body. It is
the red fluid of
the blood vessels.

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 Composition of Blood
✘ (45%) formed ✘ (55%) PLASMA- the
elements or the solid fluid or liquid portion
materials consisting of blood where the
chiefly of cells, cells are suspended. It
namely: is principally
- Red blood cells or composed of:
RBC (erythrocytes) a. water- 90%
- White blood cells or b. Solid-10%
WBC (leukocytes)\
- Blood platelets
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(thrombocytes)
 ✘ FLUID BLOOD is
collected from:
1. Victims of violent
✘ DRIED BLOOD OR
crimes
STAINS is collected
2. Parents and child in from:
case of disputed
1. Smooth surfaces
parentage
2. Hard surfaces
3. Glazed surfaces
4. Bulky objects
5. Clothing
6. Blood absorbed by the
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 The Four Tests For Blood:
✘ Preliminary Test- determines whether the
stain contains blood or another substance.
It determines whether visible stains do or
do not contain blood. It is used to
demonstrate the presence of blood.
✘ Confirmatory Test- determines whether
bloodstain really contains blood. It
positively identifies blood.
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 ✘ Precipitin Test- determines whether blood
is of human or non-human origin. And if
non-human, the specific animal family
from which it originated.
✘ Blood Grouping- determines the blood
group of human blood.

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 The Different Matings Possible Between
the Four Blood Groups

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 Semen and Seminal Stains
✘ A fluid that is emitted from
the male reproductive tract
and that contains sperm
cells, which are capable of
fertilizing the female's eggs.
Semen also contains liquids
that combine to form seminal
plasma, which helps keep
the sperm cells viable.
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 Parts of Semen
✘ Seminal Fluid
✘ Formed cellular elements which include:
a. Spermatozoa
b. Epithelial cells
c. Crytals of cholin and lecithin

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 Four Examinations for Seminal Stains or
Seminal Fluid:
I. Physical Examination c. Grayish white,
a. Semen when dry gives sometimes yellowish
stiff, starchy feeling to stain which is typical of
the cloth and produces seminal fluid.
slight deeping of the d. They have an
color with the appearance or outline of
disappearance of the a contour map
color. e. May have a reddish
b. Seminal stains exhibits tint in case of old man.
fluorescence under the
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 II. Chemical
Examination
a. Florence Test- It was
discovered by Dr. Florence in
1886. It is used to detect the
presence of choline. When
Florence reagent (potassium
iodide+iodine+ water) is
applied to the slide it
produces rhomboidal shape
dark crystals of choline
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periodide.
 b. Barberio’s Test- It is
used for detecting
spermine. In positive
cases, yellow needle
shaped crystals.

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 c. Acid-Phosphatase Test-
Human semen contains high
concentrations of acid
phosphatase which can
therefore be the basis of the
screening test.

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 III. Microscopic Examination- This test is
used for sperm count, sperm motility, sperm
viability, sperm morphology and antibodies
coating of sperms.

IV. Biological Examination- The test was

proposed by Farnum in 1901.

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 Hair
It is a specialized
epithelial outgrowth of the
skin which occurs
everywhere on the human
body except on the palm
of the hands and soles of
the feet. It is an appendage
of the skin.
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 Microscopic Examination of Human
Hair
✘ Color ✘ Character of cuticle
✘ Length by actual measurement ✘ Character of cortex
✘ Character of hair-whether stiff, ✘ Presence of dye in hair
wiry or soft
✘ Width ✘ Determination of whether
✘ Character of hair tip if present naturally or artificially curled
✘ Manner by which hard had ✘ Character of medulla
been cut
✘ Condition of root or base or
bulb of hair
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 The Region of the Body From Which the Human
Hair has been Removed
✘ Scalp hair- they are more mature than any other kind of human hair
✘ Beard hair- coarse, curved, very stiff and often triangular in cross section
✘ Hairs from eyebrow, eyelid, nose and ear- short, stubby and have wide medulla,
eyebrow and eyelashes are usually very short and has sharp tip.
✘ Trunk hair- vary in thickness along the shaft and are immature but are somewhat
similar to head hairs, they have fine and long tip ends.
✘ Limb hair- similar to trunk hairs but usually are not so long or so coarse and usually
contains less pigment
✘ Axilliary hair- is fairly long with unevenly distributed pigment. They vary
considerably in diameter along the shaft and have frequently a bleached appearance.
Looks like pubic hair but the ends are sharper and the hair is not so curly.
✘ Pubic hair- similar to axillary hairs but are coarse, and do not appear bleached, more
wiry, have more constriction and twist and usually have continuous broad medulla.
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Forensic Specimens
SITE MATERIAL EQUIPMENT SAMPLING INTRUCTIOS

Anus (Rectum) Semen Cotton swabs and Use swab and slides to collect
and plate material; lubricate
Lubricant microscope slides instruments with water, not
Cotton swab lubricant.
Dry swab after collection.

Blood Drugs Appropriate tube Collect 10 ml of venous

blood.
DNA (Victim) Appropriate tube Collect 10 ml of blood.
Clothing Adherent foreign Paper bags Clothing should be placed in
a paper bag(s). Collect paper
materials (e.g.. semen, sheet or drop cloth. Wet items
blood, hair, fibres) should be bagged separately.

Genitalia Semen Cotton swabs and Use separate swabs and slides
to collect and plate material
microscope slide collected from the external
genitalia, vaginal vault and
cervix; lubricate speculum
with water not lubricate or
collect a blind vaginal swab.
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 Comparison to hair found Sterile container Cut approximately 20 hairs and
Hair place hair in sterile container.
at scene
Semen Cotton swabs, sterile Swab multiple sites in mouth with
Mouth one or more swabs. To obtain a
DNA (Victim) container (for oral washings
sample of oral washings, rinse
or dental flossing)
mouth with 10 ml water and
Cotton swab collect in sterile container.

Nails Skin, blood, fibres, etc. Sterile toothpick or similar or Use the toothpick to collect
nail scissors/clippers material from under the nails or the
nail can be cut and the clippings
collected in a sterile container.

Sterile container Collect if used during or after

Sanitary pads/tampons Foreign material (e.g.
vaginal or oral penetration.
semen, blood, hair)
Semen Cotton swab Swab sites were semen may be
Skin present.
Saliva, Blood Cotton swab
Dry swab after collection.
Swab or tweezers
Foreign material Place material in sterile container

Collect 100 ml of urine

Urine Drugs 64Sterile container
 Primary Reasons that may Contribute to the
Rendering of and Evidence /Specimen as Useless:

✘ Improper packing of the specimen.

✘ Failure to identify the specimen.
✘ Improper precautions used in transmitting the
specimen.
✘ Improper preservation.
✘ Lack of precaution to prevent tampering of
the specimen.

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THANK
S!
Any questions?

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