CHAPTER SEVEN

Curriculum Development and Planning

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 Objectives
• Discuss the four conceptual frame works of curriculum
development;
• Differentiate the terms between curriculum development,
planning and curriculum design;
• Compare and contrast the two models of curriculum
development;
• Develop a curriculum based on standardized benchmark;
• Discuss six models of curriculum evaluation;

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 Curriculum: Conceptual framework
• The term “Curriculum” is derived from the Latin term ‘
curere’ that means ‘running the race’.
• It is an interpretation of lived experience.
• Curriculum can be defined in a narrow sense as ‘an
organized set of formal educational and/or training
intention’ (Pratt, 1980), or
• In a broader sense as ‘the entire range of experience, both
directed and undirected in the unfolding/development/
abilities of the individual’ (Stenhouse, 1975).

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 For this purpose Curriculum:
• refers to all the planned learning opportunities offered to
the learners by the educational institution and

• the experiences learners’ encounter when the curriculum is

implemented.

• This includes those activities that educators have devised

for learners which are invariably represented in the form of
a written document

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 Curriculum Definition con’t
• The process where by teachers make decisions to
implement those activities given interaction with content
variables such as learners, resources, teachers and the
learning environment (Print, 1993).
•  Planned learning experiences
• Offered within an educational institution
•  Represented as a document
• Achievement experiences resulting from implementing
that document;

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 Conceptions of Curriculum

The academic rationalist conception:

 Oldest/ traditional among the curriculum conceptions

It gives more emphasis to knowledge, skills and values to
be found in the various academic disciplines.

• In this conception of curriculum, the application of

cognitive skills in resolving problems is valued highly.

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 The humanistic conception
 A holistic approach to curriculum development where the
integration of cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains is
emphasized.
focuses on the individual and the individuals needs and interests
It is all round personality.
Qualitative measures that emphasize process more than
product are frequently used.
Cognitive Processes Conception
• focuses on the development of the intellectual process.
• The curriculum should shape the intellectual and cognitive
skills of the learner.
• Once they gain the skills the learner can apply it to other forms
of learning and in any context.
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 Social re-constructionist conception
  Deriving the contents of a curriculum from social needs,
social issues, current ideals, and future aspirations.
This conception sees the curriculum as a way to produce social
change.
Technological conception:
focuses on how curriculum should be taught or how
knowledge should be communicated.
It looks for a system of instruction that can be used to
teach any content.
Academic disciplines are always employed as contents.
 It is often considered as a means of facilitating other
conceptions than as a conception in its own right.
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 Fundamental Questions of Curriculum

1. What to teach? – This pertains to the courses, contents,

to be taught.
2.  How to teach? – It refers to the methods and techniques
to be used in the teaching learning process.
3.  When to teach? – Here it refers to the readiness of the
learners in terms of age, grade, etc. to take the courses;
4. Where to teach? – This pertains to the educational
institution and its teaching-learning environment.

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 Foundations of curriculum
Foundations of curriculum are the considerations of
educational programs and policies in the light of an
interdisciplinary endeavor involving philosophical,
psychological, sociological, and historical understandings.

(1)Philosophy-
(2)Sociology & culture
(3) Psychology and historical

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 Philosophical foundation of curriculum
• Philosophy: Is defined to be love and search of wisdom
by logical means and moral self-discipline.
• It is again an investigation of the nature, causes or
principles of reality, knowledge, or values, based on
logical reasoning.
• The various philosophical thoughts that influence
curriculum
1. Idealism
2. Realism
3. Pragmatism
4. Humanistic existentialism
5. Constructivism
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Idealism -
• considered one of the oldest philosophical systems,
whose main proponent was the Greek philosopher,
Plato.
• physical world cannot be the ultimate reality.
• The ultimate reality is the spiritual truth.
• Ideas are the only true reality.
• The source of all knowledge is God.
• Education is based on Intellectual development, cultural
heritage, and higher values like truth;
• The teacher is a role model to be imitated by students and
teaching is through lecturing.
• Search knowledge by question and answering.
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Realism-
• All knowledge is derived from experience through sense
organs and reason.
• Realists believe that man must bring himself into harmony
with the physical world.
• It is materialistic view and proposes that ultimate reality is
the physical universe.
• Truth is empirical which is based on senses. Aristotle,
student of Plato rejected the idea of Plato, believing that
the study of matter was the way to gain true knowledge.
• Each object in the Universe has certain properties that are
specific and unique and these properties could be
observed and discussed.
• Education is based on nature, laws, and physical world.
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 Pragmatism
• In pragmatism man is the measure of all things and truth
is what it works.
• Pragmatism requires adherence to practical consequences
of acts, ideas or concepts.
• If an idea makes no practical difference, it has no any
significance.
• Pragmatism holds that no idea has meaning unless it has
direct or indirect application to real things.
• Philosophy is therefore built on practical usefulness, i.e.,
“cash value of ideas.” 

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 Humanistic Existentialism
• Existentialism proposes that each person is unique;
• The whole of a human being is different from his parts;
• Humans are thinking beings that make choices for decision
that imply accountability; Individual freedom.
• For nursing, humanistic existentialism proposes that a
human being is an organismic whole, complete and
unified, that cannot be treated as component parts.
• Existentialists believe that individuals are placed on this earth
alone & must make good judgment in their environment.
• People must create themselves and create their own meaning.
• For existentialist, the curriculum focuses on the needs of
individuals, both cognitively and affectively.
• They believe that education must stress individuality.
Individuals are responsible of every consequence.
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 Constructivism
 Is based on the belief that learners should construct
meaning by them-selves.
Students are in a position to interpret by themselves;
Teacher should not tell or define everything. Teacher is
thought as an architect with blue print and
workers/students/ will do everything by them-selves. Acts
as a facilitator.
Father of this philosophy is Jean Piaget and Jerome
Brunner.

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 Sociological Foundation of Curriculum
• Schools are part and parcel of society and exist for society.
• Society influences society through its curriculum.
• Schools, through their teaching of the curriculum, can
shape and mold society and society in turn can impact the
curriculum.
• A curriculum should be able to prepare students for the
present and the future.
• In other words, a curriculum should address the wants and
needs of learners by responding to social conditions
locally, nationally and globally

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 Psychological Foundation of Curriculum
• Educational Psychology as a discipline advances principles
of teaching and learning that influence teacher-student
behavior within the context of the curriculum.
• This is because psychology is the unifying element in the
learning process.

• Reading Assignment
? Educational philosophies
• Traditional includes perennialism and essentialism;
• modern educational philosophies include progressivism and
reconstructionism.

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 The Curriculum Development Process
Curriculum is developed at Macro and Micro level;

 Curriculum development :-
 is a planning of learning opportunities intended to bring about
certain desired changes in the learners and the assessment of
the extent to which these changes have taken Place -(Nicholls
and Nicholl, 1972)

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 Curriculum development….
Is a long-term activity, which involves politicians,
government authorities, practitioners, textbook writers,
supervisors, school directors and teachers.
 The policy makers decide on the general educational
aims.
The concerned government offices, development
institutions and individuals involve in planning and writing
objectives and materials.

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 Curriculum Development….
• There will be tryout and field-testing by teachers and planners.
• Teachers and authorities involve in implementation and
carrying out quality control for further revision and
modifications.
• Curriculum Planning is the translation of the educational aims
into specific curricular activities/materials.
• It involves writing educational objectives, selecting contents
and learning experiences,
• Organizing the contents and learning experiences with the
required materials and setting the evaluation as tools for
feedback purposes to make educational decisions (Pratt:
1980:5)

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 What is Curriculum Design?
• Curriculum design can be seen as an effort made to arrange
the sequence of activities in the planning process.
• Curriculum design is a deliberate process of devising,
planning and selecting the elements, techniques and
procedures that constitute the planning process.
• It is a blue print, which sets the strategies for the
Implementation
• It is a structural arrangements (Nicholls and Nicholls, 1972)

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What are the Practical Stages involved in
Curriculum
According to Lewy (1979), the stages include:
 The determination of the general aims of education
 The Curriculum planning process
  Preliminary tryout stage
  Implementation
 Quality control

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 Models of Curriculum Development
a) The Objective Based Model –Behaviorist Philosophical
Viewpoint- Product Model- Tyler Model
According to Pope (1983), this model has the following
characteristic features:
(1) It offers a systematic analysis of the teaching learning
process by showing the interacting factors, which are
defined as aims, and objectives, contents, methods of
teaching and evaluation. It facilitates communication.

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 Objective Model…..
(2) It attempts to combine knowledge external to the
learner (content) and knowledge of how content is
mastered (method).
(3)It makes objectives fundamental to a curriculum
testing process, which could be impossible without
them. The model helps for accurate method of
evaluation.
(4) It makes evaluation mandatory in view of the
purpose of curriculum. End determines the means.

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 Criticism

Learners takes passive role because what is to be learned is

predetermined by others;

Behavioral objectives can become so numerous that a

teacher can spend more time in writing than teaching.

Educational outcomes are often unpredictable;

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 b. The Process Model and its Nature
• Alternative model recently.

• Opposition to the objective model.

• It is setting certain content that ultimately lead to any

result which may not be the same in all institutions.

• The process is an open mind and evaluation is done based

on institutional resources.

• Means determines the end.

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 The Process model of curriculum planning
claims
 End results should be open- You don’t expect the same
result among students;
The educational achievements are accepted depending
on concrete conditions where the instructional process
took place;
The multiple variables that affect educational
achievements are highly considered;
      

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 Process model…
Self assessment, reflection, project, and continuous
evaluation are integral part of education;

The individual is helped to develop skills, go out and explore

the world.

The learner has more control over, and responsibility for

learning; Becomes more empowered;

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 c. The Situational Analysis Model
 Emphasizes on the concrete life situation of the society
 It demands considering the economic, social, political,
cultural, environmental etc.
  The curriculum needs to reflect and be based on the
activities, problems, and future aspirations of the society.

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Planning the Curriculum by Using the Objective
Model:
Step 1: Making Needs Assessment /Situational Analysis/-
Diagnosis of Needs
Need assessment should at least describe the rationale,
problems, logics, facts, and figures related with health
(socio-economical) issues that would influence the reader
for the need of a specific program.

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 Need Assessment
• An educational need is a discrepancy between an existing
set of circumstances and some desired set of
circumstances.
• These discrepancies can be described in terms of
knowledge, attitude, and performance.
Existing set of circumstances-----Gap = Needs ------Desired
set of circumstances

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According to Pratt (1980), the sources of data for need
ass’t:
   Politically influential individuals and pressure groups;
   Students, teachers;
   Academic specialists;
   Employers, graduates and drop outs;
 Public representatives, community agencies, interest
groups, frontier/leading thinkers, social experts
(sociologists, psychologists, and anthropologists), and other
stakeholders

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 Instruments/tools/employed to collect data
  Questionnaires and interviews, public hearings
 Analysis of social indicators such as health indicators,
which are data about major issue, concerns and problems
in the society.
 The indicators include statistical evidences on health,
population, social services, and other related matters.
  Documentary analysis
  Observations

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 Step 2: Identification/Formulation of
Educational Aims, Goals, and Objectives
Sources of educational objectives would be:
       Studies of the contemporary society
       Studies about the learners
       Suggestions of the Subject Specialists
    Current tasks of professionals in the field and
literatures;

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 Step3- The Selection
of Curriculum
experiences (Contents and Learning
experiences)
Contents: -are elements of a subject matter, which help
the learner in the acquisition of knowledge, the
development of skills, habits, attitudes, values, etc
(Wheeler 1967).

• Contents are the experiences that help the individual to

achieve the required changes.

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 Criteria for the Selection of Contents:
• The Validity of subject matter; - achieve the objectives
• The Significance of subject matter; - Essential one
• Appropriate balance of scope & depth; -coverage
• Appropriateness to public needs and interests;
• The durability of the subject matter (test of survival);-
Laying general foundation, Universal, facts may change and
do not dwell;

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 Criteria…

• Logical relationship of the subject matter content to

maintain ideas & basic concepts;

• Learn-ability of the subject matter;

• Possibility of the subject matter to interact with or attract

data from other subjects;

• Contents that contribute to the dev’t of society;

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 Step 4- The Organization of the Curriculum
(Contents and Learning Experiences);
• Curriculum organization is a systematic arrangement of
objectives, contents, learning experiences and materials
in a unified and consolidated manner.
• It is a process of putting contents and learning
experiences together to form some kind of coherent
program (units, courses, and programs (Tyler, 1949).

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 Curriculum Organization
is based on four principles :-
 Continuity – One learning experience should reinforce
another; vertical recurrence of concepts, ideas , skill
Sequence – Order of contents and courses; what must
come first and what must follow and why?
 Scope – Coverage
 Integration/vertical; and horizontal relationship; Within
and between subjects

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 How will you organize what you Teach
(Sequencing)?

Start from simple to complex

Concentric Circle approach

 Chronological approach- time of event;

Prerequisite approach;

Spiral approach;

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 Learning Experiences: (activities and
Methods)
Are opportunities that help students to achieve the
desired behavioral changes.
 Criteria for Selection of teaching Methods include:
Objectives
Nature of Content
Learners learning style
Facilities at hand
Teacher’s personality (education and training)

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 Criteria for Selection of teaching Activities
 Practice simulation or actual correspond with
content/Applicability
 Feasibility (resource, time, abilities to handle)
  Appropriateness to level of students

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Models of Curriculum Evaluation

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 Models of Curriculum
Evaluation
(A) The Consensus Model- this model consists of
the traditional curriculum evaluation (which gives
emphasis to the effectiveness of academic
disciplines and the technologist curriculum
evaluation (which gives emphasis to the question
how curriculum offerings can be improved).

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 (b) The Humanistic and Social Reconstruction
Model-
• Human interactions are given more emphasis than the
learning outcomes;
• Mainly used with curriculum that is out of the main
stream;
• Often associated with aesthetic evaluations and
multicultural projections;
• Influenced by the psychological theories of Carl Rogers
and Abraham Maslow;

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 c. The Decision Making Model
 This is a model developed by Stufflebeam (1987).
It emphasizes on formative evaluation. It is also called the
CIPP model.
Context evaluation
Input evaluation
Process evaluation
Product evaluation

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d. The Connoisseurship Model
This is an evaluation done by someone who knows better
of the environment from the internal faculty members.
The aim of this evaluation is to produce qualitative
description or educational life as a consequence of new
program.
What happened during the school year in a given school?
 What were the main events?
How did the students and teachers participate?

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e. The Behavioral Objectives Model
 Curriculum evaluation should be conducted to find
out how far the predetermined objectives are achieved
(Tyler, 1949; Taba, 1962).

f. The Goal Free (Process) Model

 This is based on rejection of objectives.

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Subject Benchmarking and Curriculum
Development
• Benchmark is a reference point or a standard against which
outcomes can be measured or compared;

• Benchmark is a method of self-evaluation that involves

measuring performance against specified standards to
determine where to do well, where to do better and what
to improve;

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 Benchmarking con’t
• Benchmarking is a process for identifying, understanding,
and adopting best practices from other organizations in
order to help one’s own organization improve its
performance.

• In the case of higher education institutions, of course, the

central focus is on improvement of student learning

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 Benchmarking con’t
• It helps to identify weak areas and indicates what needs to
be done to improve.
• It answers the following questions:
 How well are we doing compared to others?
 How good do we want to be?
Who is doing it the best? And How do they do it?
How can we adapt what they do to our institution?
How can we do better than the rest?

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Subject Benchmark
Components
• 1. Educational Aims;
• 2. Program Learning outcomes;
• 3. Program Content Specifications;
• 4. Teaching/Learning Strategies;
• 5. Assessment Methods;
• 6. Level of Performance Criteria for learning
outcomes in terms of threshold, modal or excellent
performance. Eg CGPA 2.00, for lecturer >3.8

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 1.Educational Aims
• Are statements that identify the broad educational
purposes of the program.
• Intended to provide a clear understanding of the programs
teaching intentions.
E.g. To develop knowledge and key skills necessary for
effective employment;
To develop reasoning, and problem solving skills;
To develop basic research skills and the ability to apply
research findings to practice.

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 2. Program Learning Outcomes
• Are Statements of what the student will reasonable is
expected to know, understand or be able to do on
completion of the particular program of study.

• Learning outcomes are different from educational aims in

that they are concerned with the achievements of the
learner rather than the overall intentions of the program;

• A learning outcomes must be written in terms of what a

successful student will have to demonstrate in terms of
knowledge, understanding, skills and ability on successful
completion of the program;
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 Program Learning Outcomes
Con’t for learning outcomes may indicate reference
• Benchmark
to the following three categories:
1. Subject Knowledge and Understanding;
2. Intellectual (Cognitive/subject specific practical) Skill;
3. Transferable skills

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1. Subject Knowledge and Understanding;
• Knowledge and Understanding;
• Essential facts;
• Concepts;
• Principles;
• Theories relating to the main areas of the concerned subject
2. Intellectual (Cognitive/Subject Specific practical) Skills
• Analyzing, Synthesizing and evaluating skills;
• Critical Reasoning and judgments;
• Problem Solving Ability;
• Subject Specific Practical Skills;
• Research Ability; `

3. Transferable Skills Benchmarks

• Communication Skills
• Numeric and quantitative skills
• Information and Communication technology;
• Interpersonal and Team work skills;
• Time Management and Organizational skills;
•
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 Transferable Skills Benchmarks…
• Are readily transferable to employment and other
contexts such as communication, teamwork
• Group projects is typical in which individual students
provide evidence of team working skills;
• May be developed through extracurricular activities
including work experience, social and cultural activities.

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 3. Program Content
Specification
Stating course Codes
Titles with credit hours offered in each semester/year. – Year One,
Two, Three
Each course shall be identified as general, supportive, Major, Minor
or Elective.(course type)

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Course Syllabus for each Course
Include:
1. Course Description
2. Course Objectives and Supporting Objectives
3. Course prerequisites
4. Course logistics
5. Teaching Methods
6. Learning Materials
7. Course Assignments
8. Methods of Assessment
9. Attendance Criteria

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 4. Teaching-Learning Strategies
Lectures
Tutorials and Seminars –for knowledge and understanding
of the subject-more in-depth investigation and discussion
of selected topics;
Special external or guest lectures
Practical classes- simulation or in the field- for practical
Independent learning
Group or individual course work assignments or projects –
active learning for analysis, synthesis, problem solving and
evaluation

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Teaching/Learning Strategies
Con’t
Web based, and computer assisted learning;
Literature based research,
Case studies and other exercises;

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 5. Assessment Methods
Should match the teaching and learning strategy, meet
learning outcomes and encompass a wide variety of tools;
Should be used to improve teaching and learning for all
students, not to filter students out of educational
opportunities;
All assessments must be clear, equitable, valid and
reliable;
Should include both formative and summative assessment
and continuous assessment

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 Assessment Methods Con’t
There should be transparent assessment criteria;
Student assessment should encompass knowledge,
abilities and skills.
Assessment methods might include:
Formal examinations (mainly written examination)
Tests (short class tests, objective or subjective)
Oral Presentations (ability, confidence, and knowledge of
subject matter);
Group or individual seminar presentations;
Essays (long and/or short essays);
Practicum (simulated or real situation);
Group or individual coursework assignments or projects;
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 6. Level of Performance Criteria
Threshold Performance- describes the baseline to be
exceeded by all graduates. Threshold graduates should
demonstrate the minimum level of performance to obtain
a degree.
Modal Performance - is expected to be achieved by the
majority of graduates;
Top Performance is characterized by excellence.
 Are distinguished from the modal by their additional creativity
and adaptability;
• Bring original, insight and superior critical and reflective
abilities;

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 Subject benchmark for Quality
Assurance
 Academic Departments- produce program specifications
and self evaluation for revision;
Peer Reviewers- may utilize subject benchmark
statements when making divulgements/announce about
the relevance and appropriateness of program outcomes
and their achievements;
External Reviewers- may use subject benchmark
information as a means of determining whether the
intended learning outcomes of individual programs are
appropriate,

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 Subject benchmark at National
Level
Helps higher education institutions’ self evaluation and
improvement by providing agreed standards (benchmarks)
Assists the national monitoring of the quality of higher
education;
For establishing performance indicators which can
measure outcomes of national priorities;

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 To Apply Successfully Subject
Benchmarking:-
• Develop awareness amongst the academic community
using workshop;
• Develop the skills of the teaching staff to support systemic
curriculum review and design;
• Develop student and employer’s feedback mechanisms
that can help teaching staff improve their teaching and
assessment methods.

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 Thank You!

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