An Overview of Design of

Experiments

1
 IN DEX
• EXPERIMENTS
• A QUICK HISTORY OF DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS
• WHY WE USE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
• WHAT IS DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT
• HOW DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT CONTRIBUTES
• TERMINOLOGY
• ANALYSIS O F VARIATION (ANOVA)
• BASIC PRINCIPLE OF DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS
• SOME EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

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 EXPERIMENT
Experiments involve manipulation of one or
more independent variables, and observing
the effect on some outcome (dependent
variable). Experiments can be done in the
field or in a laboratory.

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 A QUICK H ISTORY
OF
DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS
• The agricultural origins, 1918 – 1940s
• R. A. Fisher & his co-workers
• Profound impact on agricultural science
• Factorial designs, ANOVA
• The first industrial era, 1951 – late 1970s
• Box & Wilson, response surfaces
• Applications in the chemical & process
industries

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 CONTD
…
• The second industrial era, late 1970s – 1990
• Quality improvement initiatives in many companies
• TQM were important ideas and became management
goals
• Taguchi and robust parameter design, process robustness
• The modern era, beginning 1990
• Six sigma, Lean Six sigma
• Clinical Trails, Mathematical biology.
• Algorithm design and analysis,
• Networking, group testing, and cryptography 2 /7 /2020 5
 Why we use
Experimental Designs
"All experiments are designed
experiments, it is just that some
are poorly designed and some are
well- designed."
Experimental designs are used so that the
treatments may be assigned in an organized
manner to allow valid statistical analysis to be
carried out on the resulting data. 2 /7 /2020 6
 What is Design of
Experiments
It is a logical planning (or construction) of the
experiment having a complete sequence of steps taken
ahead of time to ensure that the appropriate data will
be obtained in a way which permits an objective
analysis of a particular problem leading to valid and
precise inference in most economic and useful forms.

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 Subject Matter of
Design of
It includes:
Experiments
• Planning of the experiment
• Obtaining data from it
• Making statistical analysis of the data
obtained.

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 HOW DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT
CONTRIBUTES

• Reduce time to design/develop new products

& processes
• Improve performance of existing processes
• Improve reliability and performance of products
• Achieve product & process robustness
• Perform evaluation of materials, design
alternatives, setting component & system tolerances,
etc. 2 /7 /2020 9
 TERMINOLOGY

CONTROL LEVEL BLOCK

GROUP S

TREATMENT EXPERIMENTAL
RANDOMNESS
GROUP ERROR

FACTOR REPLICATION ANOV

S A

2 /7 /2020 10
 TERMINOLOGY

• Control Group :- A group assigned to the experiment, but not for the
purpose of being exposed to the treatment. Performance of this group
serves as a baseline.
• Treatment Group:- The Group in an experiment which receives the
specified treatment.
• Factor:- This term is used when an experiment involves more than
one
variable. These variables are often identified as factor.
• Level:- Refers to the degree or intensity of a factor.
• Randomness:-refers to the property of completely chance events that
are not predictable.
• Replication:- The repetition of the treatment under consideration.
11
• Blocks:- refers to the categories of subjects with a treatment2/g7/r2o02u0 p.
 EXPERIMENTA
L ERROR

Experimental Error is the variation in the responses among experimental units

which are assigned the same treatment, and are observed under the same
experimental conditions. It is measured by SSE (or MSE).
Ideally, we would like experimental error to be zero.
This is impossible because of (at least) one or more of the following reasons:
• There are inherent differences in the experimental units before they
receive treatments.
• There is variation in the devices that record the
• measurements. There is variation in applying or setting the
• treatments.
There are extraneous factors other than the treatments which affect the
response.
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 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
(ANOVA)
• This Statistical technique first developed by
R.A.Fisher and was was for agriculture
experiments. extensively used

• It is mainly employed for comparison of means of 3

or
more samples including the variations in each sample.

• ANOVA is the method to estimate the contribution made

by each factor to the total variation.
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 ANOVA TABLE FORMAT

Source of Sum of Degree of

Mean Squares
Variation Square Freedom F
(MS)
(SV) s (SS) (df)

Treatment SSt dft = nt-1 MSTR=SSt / dft

MSTR / MSE
Error SSr dfe = dfT-dft MSE=SSr / dfe

Total SST dfT = nT-1

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 The Steps in Designing an
Experiment

• Step 1: Identify the problem or claim to be studied.

The statement of the problem needs to be as specific
as possible. As your text says, it must "identify the
response variable and the population to be studied".
• Step 2: Determine the factors affecting the response
variable. This is best done by an expert in the field,
but we'll be able to do this for most examples we'll
be looking at.

2 /7 /2020 15
 The Steps in Designing an
Experiment (Contd…)
• Step 3: Determine the number of experimental units.
In general, more experimental units is better.
Unfortunately, time and money will always be
limiting factors, so we have to decide an
appropriate number

2 /7 /2020 16
 The Steps in Designing an
Experiment (Contd…)
• Step 4: Determine the level(s) of each factor.
We split factors up into three categories:
o Control: If possible, we try to fix the level of factors that we're
not interested in.
o Manipulate: This is the treatment - we manipulate the levels
of
the variable that we think will affect the response variable.
o Randomize: Often, there are factors we just can't control. To
mitigate their effect on the data, we randomize the groups. By
randomly assigning experimental units, these factors should
be equally spread among all groups.
2 /7 /2020 17
 The Steps in Designing an
Experiment (Contd…)
• Step 5: Conduct the
experiment.

• Step 6: Test the claim.

• Step 7: Interpret the results

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 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF
DESIGN OF
EXPERIMENTS
• Randomization
• Replication
• Local Control (Blocking)

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Complete and Incomplete Block
Designs

2 /7 /2020 20
 SOME EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS

• Completely Randomized Design (CRD)

• Randomized Block Design (RBD)
• Latin Square Design (LSD)
• Factorial Designs
• Balanced Incomplete Block Design (BIBD)
• Nested Balanced Incomplete Block designs (NBIBD)
• Balanced Incomplete Block Design with Nested Rows
and Columns
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 CRD

Complete
Designs

LSD RBD

2 /7 /2020 22
 COMPLETELY RANDOMIZED DESIGN
(CRD)

• COMPLETELY RANDOMIZED DESIGNS are the simplest design

in which the treatments are assigned to the experimental units
completely at random. This allows every experimental unit to
have an equal probability of receiving a treatment.

• For CRD, any difference among experimental units receiving

the same treatment is considered as experimental error.

2 /7 /2020 23
 Characteristics of the CRD

• CRD is the simplest design to use.

• CRD is appropriate only for experiments with homogeneous
experimental units, such as laboratory experiments, where
environmental effects are relatively easy to control. .
• The CRD is best suited for experiments with a small number of
treatments.
• For field experiments, where there is generally large variation among
experimental plots in such environmental factors as soil, the CRD is
rarely used.
• Every experimental unit has the same probability of receiving any
treatment
• Treatments are assigned to experimental units completely at
using
randoma random number table, computer program,
2 /7 /2020
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etc.
 EXAMPLE OF CRD
• In order to determine whether there is significant difference in the
durability of 3 makes of computers, samples of size 5 are selected
from each make and the frequency of repair during the first year is
observed. The results are as follows:
Makes
A B C
5 8 7
6 10 3
8 11 5
9 12 4
7 4 1 2 /7 /2020 25
 VARIOUS STEPS TO BE FOLLOWED
Step 1.
• Write the hypotheses to be tested.

Step 2.
• Calculate the Correction Factor.

Step 3.
• Calculate the Total SS

Step 4.
• Calculate the Treatment SS

Step 5.
• Calculate the Error SS

Step 6.
• Complete the ANOVA table

Step 7.
• Look up Table F-values.

Step 8.
• Make conclusions.
2 /7 /2020 26
 HYPOTHESIS

H0: The three makes of computers do not differ

significantly in the durability.

H1: Atleast one of the makes of computers differ

significantly in the durability.

2 /7 /2020 27
 TABLE FOR CALCULATION

MAK T2 ∑X2i
Xij
Ti ni i T i/ni
2
E j

A 5 6 8 9 7 35 5 1225 245 255

B 8 10 11 12 4 45 5 2025 405 445

C 7 3 5 4 1 20 5 400 80 100

TOTAL 100 15 3650 730 800

2 /7 /2020 28
Null Hypothesis :
H0: the 3 makes of computers do not differ in the
durability
• CF = (Ti)2/ni
= (100)2/15
= 666.67

• SST = ∑∑X2 –
CF
ij

= 800 -666.67
= 133.33

• SSM = ∑Ti2/ni – CF
= 730 - 666.67
= 63.33

• SSE = SST – SSM

= 133.33 -63.33
= 70 2 /7 /2020 29
 ANOVA TABLE
Sources of Sum of Degree of Mean sum of F0
Variation freedom Square
Squar
e
Between 63.33 2 31.67 31.67 /
Makes 5.83
Withi 70 12 5.83
n = 5.43
Makes
Total 133.33 14
From F – Tables, F5%(v1= 2, v2= 12) = 3.88
F0 > F5% Null hypothesis is rejected.
30
There is significant difference between the makes of computer2s/.7/2020
 ADVANTAGE
S
• Very flexible design (i.e. number of treatments and
replicates is only limited by the available number of
experimental units).
• Statistical analysis is simple compared to other
designs.
• Loss of information due to missing data is small
compared to other designs due to the larger number of
degrees of freedom for the error source of variation.
• Provides maximum number of degree of freedom.
2 /7 /2020 31
 DISADVANTAGES
• If experimental units are not homogeneous and you fail
to minimize this variation using blocking, there may be a
loss of precision.
• Usually the least efficient design unless experimental
units are homogeneous.
• Not suited for a large number of treatments.

2 /7 /2020 32
 CRD

Complete
Designs

LSD RBD
2 /7 /2020 33
RANDOMIZED BLOCK DESIGN

2 /7 /2020 34
 RANDOMISED BLOCK
DESIGN (RBD)

• Any experimental design in which the randomization

of treatments is restricted to groups of experimental
aunits
predefined
within block of units assumed to be internally
homogeneous is called a randomized block design.
• Divides the group of experimental units into n
homogeneous groups of equal or unequal sizes.
• These homogeneous groups are called blocks.
• The treatments are then randomly assigned to the
experimental units in each block - one treatment to a unit in
each block.
2 /7 /2020 35
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
RBD

• A randomized block experiment is assumed to be a two-

factor experiment., the factors are blocks and treatments.
• The blocks of experimental units are uniform.
• There is one observation per cell. It is assumed that there is
no
interaction between blocks and treatments.
• The degrees of freedom for the interaction is used to
estimate error.
• Treatments randomly assigned to each experimental unit
of a block.
2 /7 /2020 36
 Example
Four Doctors each test 4 treatments for certain disease and
observe the number of each days each patient takes to recover.
The results are : Treatments
Doctor 1 2 3 4
A 10 14 19 20
B 11 15 17 21
C 9 12 16 19
D 8 13 17 20

2 /7 /2020 38
 Two
WHAyYpAotNhAe
H : There is no significant difference between the doctors.
LsoneYofisS ISdoctor is significantly different.
0A

H : Atleast
1A the

H0B: There is no significant difference between the

treatments.
H1B: Atleast one of the treatment is significantly different.

2 /7 /2020 39
 Table for calculations
2
Doctor 1 2 3 4 Ti K Ti / ∑X2ij
k
A 10 14 19 20 63 4 992.25 1057
B 11 15 17 21 64 4 1024 1076
C 9 12 16 19 56 4 784 842
D 8 13 17 20 58 4 841 922
∑Ti2 / k =
Tj 38 54 69 80 241 16 3641.25 3897

∑Tj2 / h
T j2 / h 361 729 1190.25 1600 = 3880.25

∑X2ij 366 734 1195 1602 = > 3897 2/7/2020 40

• CF = (Ti)2 / N
= (241)2 / 16 =3630.06

• SSTotal = ∑∑X2 - CF
ij

= 3897 – 3630.06 = 266.94

• SSD = ∑Ti2 / h – CF
= 3641.25 – 3630.06 = 11.19

• SSt = ∑Tj2 / k – CF
= 3880.25 -3630.06 = 250.19

• SSe= SSTotal - SSD - SSt = 5.56

2 /7 /2020 41
 ANOVA TABLE
Source of Sum of Degree of Mean sum F0
of square
Variatio Squar Freedom
n e
Doctors 11.19 3 3.73 3.73 / 0.62

= 6.02
Treatments 250.19 3 83.40 83.40 / 0.62
= 134.52
Error 5.56 9 0.62 -
Total 266.94 15
From F – Tables, F5%(v1= 3, v2= 9) = 3.86

F0 > F5%

The difference between the doctors is significant and that

Treatments
between theis highly significant. 2 /7 /2020 42
 ADVANTAGES
• Complete flexibility can have any number of treatments
and blocks.
• Provides more accurate results than the completely
randomized design due to grouping.
• Relatively easy statistical analysis even with
missing
data.
• Some treatments may be replicated more times than
others.
• Whole treatments or entire replicates may be
deleted 2 /7 /2020 43
from the analysis.
 DISADVANTAGES
• Not suitable for large numbers of treatments because
blocks become too large, and there is possibility of
hetertrogenity among the experimental units of the
blocks
• Interactions between block and treatment effects
increase error.
• Serious problem with the analysis if a block factor by
treatment interaction effect actually exists and no
replication within blocks has been included. (solution:
use replication within blocks when possible).

2 /7 /2020 44
 CRD

Complete

LSD RBD

2 /7 /2020 45
 LATIN SQUARE DESIGN (LSD)
• A Latin square is a square array of objects (letters A, B, C, …) such that each
object appears once and only once in each row and each column.
• Example - 4 x 4 Latin Square.
A B C
D B C
D A C
D A B
DABC
• The Latin Square Design is for a situation in which there are two extraneous
sources of variation. If the rows and columns of a square are thought of as
levels of the the two extraneous variables, then in a Latin square each treatment
appears exactly once in each row and column.
• With the Latin Square design we are able to control variation in tw72/o20/ d20irecti4o6 ns.
 CHARACTERISTICS
OF LSD
• In LSD we have three factors:
Treatments, Rows and Columns
• The number of treatments = the number of rows = the number of
colums = t (say).
• The row-column treatments are represented by cells in a t x t array.
• The treatments are assigned to row-column combinations using a
Latin-square arrangement, that is each row contains every treatment.
and each column contains every treatment.
• Every treatment occurs once in each row and column.
2 /7 /2020 47
 Example

• The Following Data resulted from an experiment to compare

three burners B1, B2 and B3. LSD was used as the tests
were made on 3 engines and were spread over 3 days.
Engine 1 Engine 2 Engine 3
Day 1 B1 – 16 B2 – 17 B3 - 20
Day 2 B2 – 16 B3 – 21 B1 - 15
Day 3 B3 – 15 B1 - 12 B2 - 13

2 /7 /2020 49
 HYPOTHESIS

H0A: There is no significant difference between burners.

H1A: Atleast one of the burner is significantly different.
H0B: There is no significant difference between the
days. H1B: Atleast one of the day is significantly
different H0C: There is no significant difference
between Engines. H1C: Atleast one of the engine is
significantly different 2 /7 /2020 50
 2
E1 E2 E3 Ti Ti / ∑X2ij
n
Day 1 16(B1) 17(B2) 20(B3) 53 936.33 945
Day 2 16(B2) 21(B3) 15(B1) 52 901.33 922
Day 3 15(B3) 12(B1) 13(B2) 40 533.33 538
Tj 47 50 48 145 ∑= 2405
2370.99
T2 j / n 736.33 833.33 768 ∑=
2337.66
∑X2ij 737 874 794 2405

Rearranging data values according to the Burners :

2
Burner Xk Tk Tk /
n
B1 16 15 12 43 616.33
B2 17 16 13 46 705.33
B3 20 21 15 56 1045.33
2366.99
2/ 7 /2020
51
• CF = (Ti)2 / n
= (145)2 / 9 = 2336.11

• SSTotal =∑∑X2 – CF
ij

= 2405 – 2336.11 = 68.89

• SSD1=∑∑T i2 / n – CF
= 2370.99 – 2336.11 = 34.88

• SSD2=∑∑Tj2 / n – CF
= 2337.66 – 2336.11 = 1.55

• SSD3=∑∑T 2 / n – CF
k

= 2366.99 – 2336.11 =
30.88
• SSE = SSTotal – SSD1 – SSD2 – SSD3
= 1.55 2 /7 /2020 52
 ANOVA TABLE

S.V S.S d.f M.S F0

Days 34.88 2 17.44 17.55 / 0.775

= 22.51
Engines 1.55 2 0.775 0.775 / 0.775
=1
Burners 30.88 2 15.44 15.44 / 0.775
= 19.93
Error 1.55 2 0.775

Total 68.89 8

2 /7 /2020 53
 CONCLUSION

• From F – Tables, F5%(v1= 2, v2= 2) = 19.00

• F0(19.93) > F5% There is a significant Difference Between
the Burners

• F0(22.51) > F5% The Difference Between the Days is

significant

2 /7 /2020 54

• F0(1) < F5% The Difference Between the Engine is not

significant
 ADVANTAGE
S
• We can control variation in two directions. It
means LSD is more efficient then CRD and RBD.
• Being 3-way design it is economic over the
corresponding complete 3-way design. Instead
of
𝑟 3 experimental units, here only 𝑟 2
experimental units are sufficient.
• The analysis remains relatively simple even
with missing data. 2 /7 /2020 55
 DISADVANTAGES
• Number of treatment is limited to the number of
replicates which seldom exceeds 10.
• If we have less than 5 treatments, the df for controlling random
variation is relatively large and the df for error is small.
• The number of treatments must equal the number of
replicates.
• The experimental error is likely to increase with the size of
the square.
• Evaluation of interactions between rows and columns,
rows and treatments & columns and treatments is not
possible separately.
2 /7 /2020 56
 FACTORIAL
E XPERIMENT
Factorial designs include two or more factors, each
having more than one level or treatment. Participants
typically are randomized to a combination that includes
one treatment or level from each factor.

2 /7 /2020 57
 BALANCED INCOMPLETE
BLOCK DESIGNS (BIBD)
• Situation where the number of treatments exceeds number of
units per block (or logistics do not allow for assignment of
all treatments to all blocks)
• # of Treatments  v
• # of Blocks  b
• Replicates per Treatment  r < b
• Block Size  k < v
• Total Number of Units  N = kb = rv
• All pairs of Treatments appear together in =
r(k-1)/(v-1) Blocks for some integer 

2 /7 /2020 58
 N ESTED DESIGNS

• In certain multifactor experiments, the levels of one

factor are similar but not identical for different levels
of another factor, (is unique to that particular
factor) this is called hierarchical or nested design.
http://jrss.in/data/5I12.pdf

2 /7 /2020 59