Unit 1  

Semiconductor Physics
A Classification of Solids on the basis of energy band, CO1
electrons and holes concentration in intrinsic
semiconductors, Fermi levels, Mobility,
conductivity,
B Donor and Acceptor impurities (n-type and p-type CO1
semiconductor), Drift and diffusion current, Hall
effect,
C p-n junction, types of p-n junction (step-graded and CO1,
Linearly-graded junction), formation of depletion CO6
region, barrier potential, Zener diode, Avalanche  
and Zener breakdown.
 Formation of Bands in Solids
Electron Bands
• Electrons revolve around the
nucleus in defined shells
• K 2 electrons L
• L 8 electrons
• M 18 electrons K
• N 32 electrons
• Within each shell, electrons are
further grouped into subshells
• s 2 electrons
• p 6 electrons
• d 10 electrons
• f 14 electrons
• electrons are assigned to shells d 10
and subshells from inside out
• Si has 14 electrons: 2 K, 8 L, 4 p 6
M
s 2
Splitting of Atomic Levels in Carbon
 Figure shows energy bands
in carbon (and silicon) as a
function of interatomic
separation.

At large separation, there is

a filled 2s band and a 1/3
filled 2p band.

But electron energy can be lowered if the carbon-carbon separation is

reduced.
Carbon

There is a range of carbon-carbon separations for which the 2s

and 2p bands overlap and form a hybrid band containing 8N
states (levels).
But the minimum total
electron energy occurs at
this carbon carbon
separation.

At this separation there is a

valence band containing 4N
quantum states and
occupied by 4N electrons.

The filled band is separated by a large gap from the empty

conduction band. The gap is 6 eV—remember, kT is about
0.025 eV at room temperature. The gap is too large for
ordinary electric fields to move an electron into the conduction
band. Carbon is an insulator. That is not the case with
Silicon!
Insulators, Semiconductors, and Metals
(continued)

Conduction
Band

Valence
Band

Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Based on ‘band theory’, solids can be classified

into three categories, namely,
1. Insulators,
2. semiconductors &
3. conductors.
 Insulators, Semiconductors, and Metals
• The separation of the valence and conduction bands determines the
electrical properties of the material
• Insulators have a large energy gap
• electrons can’t jump from valence to conduction bands
• no current flows
• Conductors (metals) have a very small (or nonexistent) energy gap
• electrons easily jump to conduction bands due to thermal
excitation
• current flows easily
• Semiconductors have a moderate energy gap
• only a few electrons can jump to the conduction band
• leaving “holes”
• only a little current can flow
 CONDUCTORS

• Conduction and valence bands are overlapped

• Abundant free electrons already exist in the conduction band

at room temperature hence conductivity is high.

• The resistivity increases with temperature as the mobility of

already existing electrons will be reduced due to collisions.

• Metals are best examples.

INSULATORS

• Bad conductors of electricity

• Conduction band is empty and valence band is full, and these band
are separated by a large forbidden energy gap.

• The best example is Diamond with Eg=7ev.

 SEMICONDUCTORS

• Forbidden gap is less

• Conduction band and valence band are partially filled at room
temperature.
• Conductivity increases with temperature as more and more
electrons cross over the small energy gap.
• Examples Si(1.1eV) & Ge(0.72eV)
Conductors, semiconductors and insulators
SEMICONDUCTORS
•A semiconductor is a material with conducting properties
between those of a good insulator (e.g. glass) and a good
conductor (e.g. copper). Ex: Si, Ge, GaAs etc.
•Energy band gap around 1 eV.
•At absolute zero, all energy states in the valence band are
full and all states in the conduction band are empty. Hence
pure semiconductors are insulators at zero temperature.
•At room temperature however, some of the valence
electrons acquire thermal energy greater than Eg and cross
over into the conduction band.
•These free electrons, and the holes created in the valence
band, can move about even under a small applied field.
 Widely used in……
•computers  air bags  Palm pilots  cell phones
• pagers  DVD players TV remotes  satellites
 fiber networks  switches  photocells  Peltier
refrigerators  thermoelectric generators  lasers
aerospace electronics CD players  televisions
 flat panel displays  clocks  amplifiers  logic
circuits  temperature sensors  calculators
millimeter-wave radar  synthesizers
 portable computer drives  digital cameras  etc.
 Holes and Intrinsic Semiconductors
• When electrons move into the conduction band, they leave behind
vacancies in the valence band. These vacancies are called holes.
Because holes represent the absence of negative charges, it is
useful to think of them as positive charges.

• Whereas the electrons move in a direction opposite to the applied

electric field, the holes move in the direction of the electric field.

• A semiconductor in which there is a balance between the number

of electrons in the conduction band and the number of holes in the
valence band is called an intrinsic semiconductor.

Examples of intrinsic semiconductors include pure carbon and

germanium.
 Semiconductors
• Each silicon atom has an outer shell with four
valence electrons and four vacancies (It is a
tetravalent element).
• In intrinsic (pure) silicon, atoms join together
by forming covalent bonds. Each atom shares
its valence electrons with each of four
adjacent neighbours effectively filling its outer
shell.
Intrinsic Semiconductors
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
• The structure has zero overall charge
• The complete nature of the structure means
that at absolute zero temperature (0 K) none
of the electrons is available for conduction…
thus far the material is an insulator.
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
• At room temperature some of the electrons
are able to acquire sufficient thermal
energy to break free from their bond.
• Whenever an electron leaves its position in
the lattice it leaves a vacancy known as a
hole.
• The process is known as electron-hole pair
generation
Intrinsic Semiconductors
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
• A freed electron can move through the body
of the material until it encounters another
broken bond where it is drawn in to complete
the bond or recombines.
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
• At a given temperature there is a dynamic
equilibrium between thermal electron-hole
generation and the recombination of electrons
and holes
• As a result the concentration of electrons and
holes in an intrinsic semiconductor is constant
at any given temperature.
• The higher the temperature the more electron-
hole pairs that are present.
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
• Two mechanisms for conduction become possible
when a bond breaks:
• 1. Due to the movement of the freed electron.
• 2. Due to neighbouring electrons moving into the
hole leaving a space behind it. (This can be most
simply thought of as movement of the hole, a
single moving positive charge carrier even though
it is actually a series of electrons that move.
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
• When an electric field (voltage) is applied, the
holes move in one direction and the electrons in
the other.
• However both current components are in the
direction of the field.
• The conduction is ohmic, i.e. current is
proportional to the applied voltage (field)
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
• The proportion of freed electrons is very
small indeed:
• In silicon the energy EG required to free an
electron is 1.2eV
• The mean thermal energy (kT) is only
25meV at room temperature (1/40 eV)
• The proportion of freed electrons varies
exponentially (-EG /kT).
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
• For an intrinsic semiconductor the number of
electron and hole carriers, and thus the
conductivity, increases rapidly with temperature.
• This is not very useful. Only about 109 electrons
per cubic centimetre contribute to the
conduction of the electric current.
• Hence we dope the material to produce an
extrinsic semiconductor.
Carriers in Semiconductors

Ec

300
18
14
15
20
19
11
12
13
17
16
1487652309ºKK
10 Eg

Ev
Electron H
E Hole P
Pair
 Extrinsic Semiconductors
• Instrinsic conduction is very small.
• Conductivity levels can be raised and controlled
by doping with minute levels of impurity atoms to
give extrinsic or doped semiconductors.
• Extrinsic semiconductors may be further divided
into either n-type or p-type
 N-type Semiconductors
• An n-type impurity atom has five outer
(valence) electrons, rather than the four of
silicon.
• Only four of the outer electrons are required
for covalent bonding. The fifth is much more
easily detached from the parent atom.
• As the energy needed to free the fifth
electron is smaller than the thermal energy
at room temperature virtually all are freed.
N-type Semiconductors
EXTRA ELECTRON FREE AT
ROOM TEMP.

+4 +4 +4

+4 +5 +4

+4 +4 +4
 P-type Semiconductors
• Here the doping atom has only three electrons in
its outer shell.
• It is relatively easy for an electron from a
neighbouring atom to move in, so releasing a
hole at its parent atom. The freed hole is
available for conduction.
• The energy needed to free the electron from its
parent is usually small compared to the thermal
energy so each impurity atom contributes one
hole for conduction (fully ionised).
P-type Semiconductors

A neighbouring
electron can move
here. This creates a
hole where the
+3 electron came from.
 Extrinsic Material

V Ec
Ed
P
50
18
14
15
20
19
11
12
13
17
16
1487652309ººKKK
10
As
Ev
Sb
Donor
 Extrinsic Material

ш Ec
B
50
18
14
15
20
19
11
12
13
17
16
1487652309ººKKK
10
Al
Ea
Ga Ev
In Acceptor
 Summary
• In an N-type semiconductor, conduction is
mainly due to electrons (negative charges)
• Positive charges (holes) are the minority
carriers.
• In a P-type semiconductor, conduction is
mainly due to holes (positive charges)
• Negative charges (electrons) are the minority
carriers.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic (n-, p- type) Semiconductors
 The Fermi Level
1
𝑓 ( 𝐸)= (𝐸 − 𝐸 𝑓 )
𝑘𝑇
1+𝑒
 k : Boltzmann’s constant
 f(E) : Fermi-Dirac distribution function
 Ef : Fermi level
3-3-1. The Fermi Level
1 1 1
𝑓 ( 𝐸 𝑓 )= = =
(𝐸 𝑓 − 𝐸 𝑓
𝑘𝑇
)
1+1 2
1+ 𝑒

f(E)
1 T1>0ºK
T=0ºK
T 2>T1

1/2
E
Ef
 3-3-1. The Fermi Level
E
f(Ec) f(Ec)

Ec

Ef
[1-f(Ec)]
Ev
≈ ≈
f(E) Intrinsic
p-type
n-type
1 1/2 0
 Carrier density in semiconductor
1. Concentration of electrons in conduction band:
2. Concentration of holes in valence band:
Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor
Summary
Drift and Diffusion current in semiconductors:
 Carrier Drift
The process in which charged particles move because
of an electric field is called drift.
Charged particles within a semiconductor move with
an average velocity proportional to the electric field.
The proportionality constant is the carrier mobility.
→ →
Hole velocity
Electron velocity 𝑣h=𝜇𝑝 𝐸
Notation:
m
p  hole mobility
(cm2/V·s)
m  electron mobility
n
(cm2/V·s)
 Drift Current
Drift current is proportional to the carrier velocity and
carrier concentration:

vh t A = volume from which all holes cross plane in time t



p vh t A = # of holes crossing plane in time t



q p vh t A = charge crossing plane in time t



q p vh A = charge crossing plane per unit time = hole current



 Hole current per unit area (current density) Jp,drift = q p vh


Similar result can be written for electrons as well
Conductivity and Resistivity
In a semiconductor, both electrons and holes conduct
current:

𝜎 ≡𝑞𝑝 𝜇is𝑝 +𝑞𝑛𝜇𝑛

The conductivity of a semiconductor
Unit: mho/cm
The resistivity of a semiconductor is 1
𝜌≡
Unit: ohm-cm 𝜎
 Carrier Diffusion
Due to thermally induced random motion, mobile
particles tend to move from a region of high concentration
to a region of low concentration.
Analogy: ink droplet in water
Current flow due to mobile charge diffusion is
proportional to the carrier concentration gradient.
The proportionality constant is the diffusion constant.
𝑑𝑝
𝐽 𝑝 =− 𝑞 𝐷𝑝
𝑑𝑥
Notation:
D  hole diffusion
p
constant (cm2/s)
D  electron diffusion
n
constant (cm2/s)
Diffusion Current
Diffusion current within a semiconductor consists of
hole and electron components:

𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑛
𝐽 𝑝,𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 =−𝑞𝐷𝑝         𝐽 𝑛,𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 =𝑞𝐷𝑛
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
The total current flowing in a semiconductor is the
sum of drift current and diffusion current:

𝐽 𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐽 𝑝, 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 + 𝐽 𝑛, 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 + 𝐽 𝑝 , 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 + 𝐽 𝑛 ,𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓

The Einstein Relation
The characteristic constants for drift and diffusion are
related:

𝐷 𝑘𝑇
   =   
𝜇 𝑞
𝑘𝑇
≅ 26 mV
Note that 𝑞 at room temperature (300K)

This is often referred to as the “thermal voltage”.

58
 Hall Effect
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a transverse magnetic field than a potential difference appears in the
conductor in the third mutually perpendicular direction
When electrons flow without magnetic field...

t semiconductor slice

+ _

d
I I
 When the magnetic field is turned on ...

I qBv

⃑
B-field ⃗ ⃗
𝑭 =𝒒(𝒗 × 𝑩
 As time goes by...
high
potential

qEH

low
qBv = qEH potential
 Finally...

VH
I

B-field
 Hall Effect
Let’s find out:
1. Hall field
2. Hall Coefficient
3. Mobility
4. Hall angle
 Hall field
• A potential difference is established from top to bottom of the
specimen with bottom face negative. This p. d. causes a field EH in
the – ve y-direction, and there is a force of eEH acting in the upward
direction on the electron . At equilibrium
𝑒 𝐸 𝐻 =𝑒 𝜈 𝐵
𝐸 𝐻= 𝜈 𝐵
and ………1
If Jx is the current density in x-direction, then
𝐽 𝑥 =𝑛𝑒 𝜈
………… 2
Where n is the concentration of current carriers, combining 2 and 3

𝐽 𝑥 𝐵………….3
𝐸 𝐻=
𝑛𝑒
 Hall coefficient
field per unit current density per unit magnetic induction is called Hall coefficient R
RH=EH/(JxB)
1
𝐻 = 𝑅 𝐻 𝐽 𝑥 𝐵 ....….3 Where
𝑅 𝐻=
𝑛𝑒 ………….4
1
𝑅 𝐻 = −́
present case as electron are charge carriers, 𝑛𝑒

……….5
ll coefficient is –ve. Here – ve sign is used because the electric field developed is in
y-direction. So
………….6

three quantities can be measured. So the Hall coefficient and carrier density ‘n’ c
ermined . The Hall coefficient is just a proportionality between the Hall field and pr

pe semiconductor the
𝐸current
𝐻 1is entirely by holes . So
𝑅 𝐻= =
𝐽 𝑥 𝐵 𝑝𝑒………7
 Hall Coefficient
• If VH is the Hall voltage developed across the specimen of thickness
‘d’, then 𝑉 𝐻 =𝑑 . 𝐸 𝐻
• Putting the value of EH from eq..3 we get
𝑉 𝐻 =𝑑 . 𝑅 𝐻 𝐽 𝑥 𝐵
• If ‘b’, is the width of the specimen , then ’bd’ will be cross-sectional
area and current density is given as
𝐼𝑥
𝐽 𝑥=
𝑏.𝑑
• Thus 𝐼𝑥 𝐼𝑥
𝑉 𝐻 =𝑑 . 𝑅 𝐻 𝐵 . 𝑉 𝐻 =𝑅 𝐻 𝐵 .
𝑏. 𝑑 𝑏
• Or 𝑉 𝐻𝑏
• 𝑅 𝐻=
𝐼 𝑥 𝐵……….13
• RH can be measured experimentally when VH, Ix, B and b are known.
VH will have opposite polarity for ‘n’ and ‘p’ type semiconductors.
 Mobility
• When the current carrying particles acquire a velocity per unit
electric field , the velocity is known as mobility and represented by µ.
𝜈
𝜇=
𝐸
• Or 𝜈=𝜇 𝐸 …………8
𝐸𝐻
• From equation..(1) 𝜈 = 𝐸 𝐻 therefore =𝜇 𝐸
𝐵 𝐵

• Or 𝐸 𝐻 =𝜇 𝐸𝐵 ……….9

• Comparing EH from equation…(3) and (9),we get 𝑅 𝐻 𝐽 𝑥 𝐵=𝜇 𝐸𝐵

• Or 𝜇= 𝑅 𝐻 𝐽 𝑥
𝐸

• But 𝐽𝑥
=𝜎 is the electrical conductivity, 𝜇=𝜎 𝑅 𝐻 ……..10
𝐸

𝐸𝐻
• Or 𝜇= 𝜎 using eq…2
𝐽𝑥𝐵
 Hall angle
• and 𝐽 𝑥 =𝜎 𝐸
𝐸𝐻
• Thus 𝜇=
𝜎 𝐸𝐵
𝜎

𝐸𝐻 1
• Or 𝜇= ×
𝐸 𝐵

1
• Or 𝜇=𝜑 × ……..11
𝐵

• Where 𝐸𝐻
𝜑= is called Hall angle.
𝐸

• Therefore ……..12
𝜑=𝜇 𝐵
 PN Junction
The discovery of the p–n junction is usually attributed to American
physicist Russell Ohl of Bell Laboratories in 1950s
Forming a p-n Junction
Doping one side of a piece of silicon with boron (a p-type
dopant-trivalent impurity) and the other side with phosphorus (an
n-type dopant-pentavalent impurity) forms a p-n junction.
First, however, consider two separate pieces of silicon - one
being n-type, the other being p-type.
The n-type material has the large numbers of free electrons
(negatively charged) that can move through the material.

Similarly, for the p-type material, there are large numbers of free
holes (positively charged) that can move through the material.

Now imagine that the n-type and the p-type

materials are brought together.
Due to this combination there will be a small electrical
imbalance inside the semiconductor crystal.

Since the N region is And the extra electrons that

missing some electrons it filled the holes in the P
has obtained a positive region, have given it a
charge. negative charge.
Different views of junction
formation
Forward biasing
Reverse biasing
 The characteristic properties of pn junction
will be apparent (visible) by just making a
contact of a p-type block with a n-type
block ?

“No”
In fact, pn junction is fabricated by special
techniques. One common method of making pn
junction is called alloying
In this method, a small block of indium (trivalent impurity) is
placed on an n-type germanium slab

The system is then heated to a temperature of about 500ºC. The

indium and some of the germanium melt to form a small puddle
of molten germanium-indium mixture.
The temperature is then start to lowered and the puddle begins to
solidify. Under proper conditions, the atoms of indium impurity
will be suitably adjusted in the germanium slab to form a single
crystal.
The addition of indium overcomes the excess of electrons in
the n-type germanium to such an extent that it creates a
p-type region.
You must remember
 The nature of the p–n junction formed may, in
general, be of two types:

A step-graded junction:-
A linearly-graded junction:-
Step graded junction:
For a step graded junction, there is an unexpected change,
say, from acceptor ions on one side to donor ions on the other
side of the junction.

This type of junction is formed by placing a trivalent

impurity ( such as Indium) against n-type Ge and heating the
combination for a short time.

Some of the Indium atoms dissolve into the n-type Ge and

converts it into p-type Ge. This type of step graded junction
is called as alloy or fusion junction. Such a junction is usually
formed between the emitter and the base of a planar
transistor.
Linearly-graded junction
For processes in which the junction is annealed over
a long period of time, impurities will migrate and
diffuse further across the transition region, which
tends to make the junction transition more gradual.
Let’s first review the properties of most commonly used p-n
junction diode.
Diodes usually come in glass or plastic cylindrical packages,
marked with a stripe on one side to indicate polarity.

In a perfectly ideal diode, current flows in one direction only,

from the anode (positive side) to the cathode (negative side)
which is marked with the stripe.
I-V Characteristics of a P-N Junction diode

(i) Forward Biased

(ii) Reversed Biased

 Forward biasing
• If positive terminal of battery is connected to the P-region and
negative to N-region, junction is called forward biased because it
permits easy flow of current across the junction.
• When external voltage applied to the P-N junction is in such a
direction that it cancels the potential barrier, thus permitting
current flow, it is called forward biasing. During forward biasing
the depletion region width is reduced.
• Due to electrical force of source, both electrons and holes are
driven towards the junction where they recombine and complete
circuit.
• The flow of electrons from N-type to P-type can be maintained
with the help of external power source.
• Low resistance in the forward direction.
 Reverse biasing
• If positive terminal of battery is connected to the N-region and
negative to P-region, junction is called reverse biased.
• When the external voltage applied to the P-N junction is in
such a direction that potential barrier is increased, is called
reverse biasing.
• Reverse voltage establishes an electric field which act in same
direction as the field due to potential barrier.
• The increased potential barrier prevents the flow of majority
charge carriers across the junction, thus a high resistance path
is established.
• Under reverse bias, no current due to majority carriers, yet
small current (a few μA for Ge and nA for Si) due to minority
carriers.
 V/I Characteristics
Forward characteristics
• In Ge, upto 0.3 V no reasonable current flows .
• A potential difference of about 0.3 V is required for forward
current to flow. This is known as threshold voltage/ cut-in
voltage or knee voltage. It is practically same as barrier
voltage.
• As applied voltage increases beyond the threshold value, the
forward current increases sharply.
 V/I Characteristics
Reverse characteristics

• As reverse voltage is increased from zero, the reverse current

rises to its maximum value.

• This gives rise to a very small current called surface leakage

current.
In reverse biasing the current flows due to the drift of minority
charge carriers.
 Diode Current
• The general characteristics of a semiconductor diode can be
defined by the following equation, referred to as Shockley’s
equation, for the forward and reverse bias regions.
• I=Is (e eV/ηKT-1) ampere…………………..1
• Is = diode reverse saturation current
• V=voltage across junction, positive for forward and negative
for reverse bias
• K= Boltzman’s constant = 1.38X10-23 J/K
• T= crystal temperature in Kelvin
• η = 1 for germanium
• η = 2 for Silicon
• For positive value of V (forward Bias) the first term of
equation 1 will grow very quickly and totally overpowers the
effect of the second term.
• I ≈ Ise eV/ηKT
• For negative value of V (reverse Bias) the exponential term
drops very quickly.
• I ≈ Is
Zero Biasing (Without Biasing)
Forward Biased
Reverse Biased
 Applications of Junction Diode
Junction diode can be used as rectifier
Half Wave Rectifier Full Wave Center Tape Rectifier
BRIDGE RECTIFIER
 Zener diode
• Zener diode is fabricated by heavily
doping both p-, and n- sides of the
junction. Due to this, depletion region
formed is very thin (<10–6 m) and the
electric field of the junction is
extremely high (~5×106 V/m) even for a
small reverse bias voltage of about 5V.
• The zener diode is a special type of
diodes that is designed to work in the
reverse breakdown region. Forward Operation region:
• Forward bias-operate same as normal
characteristics are same as a normal
diode. diode
• Reverse bias-small current flow
• VZ = Zener breakdown voltage
• Breakdown-big current flow. This is
• Zener diode is a main component to the region where the Zener voltage is
design voltage regulator circuit for DC constant
power supply. • For normal diode breakdown voltage is
capable to destroy the diode but with
zener diode the current is limited by
connecting series resistor.
 Reverse Breakdown
• As the reverse bias voltage increases, the
electric field in the depletion region increases.
Eventually, it can become large enough to
cause the junction to break down so that a
large reverse current flows:

breakdown voltage
Zener Breakdown

1. This occurs at junctions which being heavily doped have narrow depletion
layers
2. This breakdown voltage sets a very strong electric field across this narrow layer.
3. Here electric field is very strong to rupture the covalent bonds thereby
generating electron hole pairs. So even a small increase in reverse voltage is
capable of producing large number of current carriers. This leads to Zener
breakdown.

Avalanche breakdown

1. This occurs at junctions which being lightly doped have wide depletion layers.
2. Here electric field is not strong enough to produce Zener breakdown.
3. Here minority carriers collide with semi conductor atoms in the depletion region,
which breaks the covalent bonds and electron-hole pairs are generated. Newly
generated charge carriers are accelerated by the electric field which results in
more collision and generates avalanche of charge carriers. This results in
avalanche breakdown.
 Zener Diode

The Zener is a diode operated in reverse bias at the Zener Voltage (Vz).

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•Power dissipation = VZ.IZ

•For proper working Zener diode must have:

reverse biasing voltage across > VZ

current in circuit < IZmax.