Mountain

A mountain is a large land form that rise above

the surrounding land in a limited area, usually in
the form of a peak. A mountain is generally
steeper than a hill. Mountains are formed
through tectonic forces or volcanism.
Or
A natural elevation of the earth’s surface, and
attaining an altitude greater than that of a hill,
usually greater than 2000 feet(610 meters above
MSL).
 Mountain building theories
GEOSYNCLINES
Meaning and concept:
The geological history of the continents and
ocean basins denotes the fact that tin the
beginning our globe was characterized by two
important features like(1). Rigid masses and
(2). Geosynclines. Rigid masses representing
the present continents and geosynclines
representing the present water body
characterized by extensive sedimentation.
 Definition of Geosynclines
 ‘Geosynclines are long but narrow and shallow water depressions characterized
by sedimentation and subsidence’.
 According to J.A,Steers (1932), ‘the geosynclines have been long and relatively
narrow depression which seem to have subsided during the accumulation of
sediments in them’.
• GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GEOSYNCLINE
1). Geosynclines are long, narrow and shallow depressions of water.
2). These are characterized by gradual sedimentation and subsidence.
3). The nature and patterns of geosynclines have not remained the same
throughout geological history, it is due to earth movements and geological
process.
4).Geosynclines are mobile zones of water.
5). Geosynclines are generally bordered by two rigid masses which are called
forelands and hinterlands.
 Evolution of the concept
 The concept of geosynclines was given by James Hall and Dana
but the concept was elaborated and further developed by Haug.
 J.A.Steers (1932), has remarked, while the theory of
geosynclines is due to ‘Haug, the concept of idea belong to ‘Hall
and Dana’.
(1) CONCEPT OF HALL AND DANA:
 Dana studied the folded mountains and postulated that the
sediments of the rocks of folded mountains were of marine
origin.
 These rocks were deposited in long, narrow and shallow seas.
Dana named such water bodies as geosynclines.
 He defined, for the first time, geosynclines as long, narrow and
shallow and sinking beds of seas.
Diagrammatic view of geosynclines
 Hall elaborated the concept of geosynclines as
advanced by Dana.
 He presented ample evidences to show
relationship between geosynclines and folded
mountains.
 He argued that the rocks of folded mountains
were deposited in shallow seas.
 According to Hall the beds of geosynclines are
subjected to subsidence due to continuous
sedimentation.
 Geosynclines are much longer than their widths.
 Concept of E. Haug
 The concept of geosynclines developed by ‘Haug’.
 He defined geosynclines as long and deep water bodies.
According to Haug ‘geosynclines are relatively deep water
areas and they are much longer than they are wide.
 He drew the palaeogeographical maps of the world and
depicted long and narrow oceanic tracts to demonstrate the
facts that these water tracts were subsequently folded into
mountain ranges.
 He further postulated that the positions of the present-day
mountains were previously occupied by oceanic tracts like
geosynclines.
 He further argued that geosynclines existed as mobile zones of
water between rigid masses.
 He identified 5 major rigid masses during
Mesozoic era e.g. (1) North Atlantic mass, (2)
Sino-Siberian Mass, (3) Africa-Brazil Mass, (4)
Australia-India-Madagascar mass and (5)
Pacific mass.
 He located 4 geosynclines between these
ancient rigid masses e.g. (1) Rockies
geosynclines, (2) Ural geosynclines, (3) Tethys
geosynclines (4) Circum pacific geosynclines.
Palaeogeographical Maps of Geosynclines
 According to Haug there are systematic
sedimentation in the geosynclines.
 The marginal areas of the geosynclines have
shallow water wherein larger sediments are
deposited whereas finer sediments are
deposited in central parts of the geosynclines.
 The sediments are squeezed and folded into
mountain ranges due to compressive forces
coming from the margins of geosynclines.
 Stages of Geosynclines
 The geosynclinal history is divided into three stages :
1). Lithogenesis (the stage of creation of geosynclines, sedimentation and
subsidence of the beds of geosynclines.
2). Orogenesis (the stages of squeezing and folding
of geosynclinal sediments into mountain ranges).
3).Gliptogenesis (the stage of gradual rise of mountains)
Geosynclinal Orogen theory of Kober
 Objective of Geosynclinal Orogen theory:
 Famous German geologist Kober has
presented a detailed and systematic
description of the surface features of the
earth in his book ‘Der Bau Der Erde’.
 His main objective was to establish
relationship between ancient rigid masses or
tablelands and more mobile zones or
geosynclines, which he called Orogen.
 Orogenetic Force
 Kober’s geosynclinal theory is based on the
forces of contraction produced by the cooling
of the earth.
 In other words, the force of contraction
generated due to cooling of the earth causes
horizontal movements of the rigid masses or
forelands which squeeze, buckle and fold the
sediments in to mountain ranges.
 Base of the theory
 According to Kober there were mobile zones
of water in the places of present-day
mountains. He called mobile zones of water
as geosynclines or orogen (the place of
mountain building).
 These mobile zones of geosynclines were
surrounded by rigid masses which were
termed by Kober as Kratogen.
• Kober has identified 6 major periods of
mountain building.
• 1) Pre-Cambrian period
• 2) Palaeozoic era
• 3) Caledonian period
• 4) Silurian period
• 5) Carboniferous period
• 6) Tertiary epoch
 Mechanism of the theory
 According to Kober the whole process of mountain
building passes through three closely linked stages of
lithogenesis, orogenesis and gliptogenesis.
 The geosynclines or orogen are long and wide mobile
zones of water which are bordered by rigid masses,
which have been named by Kober as forelands or
Kratogen.
 These upstanding land masses or forelands are subjected
to continuous erosion by fluvial process and eroded
materials are deposited in the geosynclines . This process
of sediment deposition is called sedimentation.
 Stages of Geosynclines
 The geosynclinal history is divided into three stages :
1). Lithogenesis (the stage of creation of geosynclines,
sedimentation and subsidence of the beds of geosynclines.
 Orogenesis
(the stages of squeezing and folding of
geosynclinal sediments into mountain ranges).
 Gliptogenesis
• 3).Gliptogenesis (the stage of gradual rise of mountains.
 According to Kober folding of entire sediments of the
geosynclines or part thereof depends upon the
intensity of compressive forces.
 If the compressive forces are normal and of the
moderate intensity, only the marginal sediments of
the geosynclines are folded to form two marginal
randketten (marginal ranges) and middle portion of
the geosynclines remain unaffected by folding
activity.
 This unfolded middle portion is called
Zwischengebirge (median mass).
Alternatively, if the
compressive force are acute,
the whole of geosynclines
sediments are composed,
squeezed, and ultimately
folded and both the forelands
are closed.