Matrices and Determinants

1
1.1 Matrices
1.2 Operations of matrices
1.3 Types of matrices
1.4 Properties of matrices
1.5 Determinants
1.6 Inverse of a 33 matrix

2
1.1 Matrices
1 3 1 
2 3 7
A  B   2 1 4
1 1 5   4 7 6 

Both A and B are examples of matrix. A matrix

is a rectangular array of numbers enclosed by a
pair of bracket.

Why matrix?

3
1.1 Matrices
Consider the following set of equations:
 x  y  7, It is easy to show that x = 3 and
 y = 4.
3x  y  5.
 x  y  2 z  7,
 2 x  y  4 z  2,

How about solving 
5 x  4 y  10 z  1,
 3 x  y  6 z  5.

Matrices can help…

4
1.1 Matrices
 a11 a12  a1n 
In the matrix a a22 a2 n 
A   21
   
 
 am1 am 2 amn 

numbers aij are called elements. First subscript

indicates the row; second subscript indicates
the column. The matrix consists of mn elements
It is called “the m  n matrix A = [aij]” or simply
“the matrix A ” if number of rows and columns
are understood.
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1.1 Matrices
Square matrices
 a11 a12  a1n 
When m = n, i.e., a a22 a2 n 
A   21
   
 
 an1 an 2 ann 
A is called a “square matrix of order n” or
“n-square matrix”
elements a11, a22, a33,…, ann called diagonal
elements.
n

 
i 1
aii  a11  a22  ...  ann
is called the trace of A. 6
1.1 Matrices
Equal matrices

Two matrices A = [aij] and B = [bij] are said to

be equal (A = B) iff each element of A is equal
to the corresponding element of B, i.e., aij = bij
for 1  i  m, 1  j  n.
iff pronouns “if and only if”
if A = B, it implies aij = bij for 1  i  m, 1  j  n;
if aij = bij for 1  i  m, 1  j  n, it implies A = B.
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1.1 Matrices
Equal matrices
 1 0 a b 
Example: A  and B 
 4 2   c d 
Given that A = B, find a, b, c and d.

if A = B, then a = 1, b = 0, c = -4 and d = 2.

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1.1 Matrices
Zero matrices

Every element of a matrix is zero, it is called

a zero matrix, i.e.,
0 0  0 
0 0 0 
A 
  
 
 0 0 0 

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1.2 Operations of matrices
Sums of matrices
If A = [aij] and B = [bij] are m  n matrices,
then A + B is defined as a matrix C = A + B,
where C= [cij], cij = aij + bij for 1  i  m, 1  j  n.
1 2 3   2 3 0
Example: if A
0 1 4  and B
1 2 5 
   
Evaluate A + B and A – B.
 1 2 2  3 3  0   3 5 3
A B     
 0  ( 1) 1  2 4  5    1 3 9 
 1 2 2  3 3  0   1 1 3 
A B     
 0  ( 1) 1  2 4  5   1 1 1 10
1.2 Operations of matrices
Sums of matrices
Two matrices of the same order are said to
be conformable for addition or subtraction.
Two matrices of different orders cannot be
added or subtracted, e.g.,
1 3 1 
2 3 7 2 1 4
1 1 5   
 
 4 7 6 

are NOT conformable for addition or

subtraction. 11
1.2 Operations of matrices
Scalar multiplication
Let  be any scalar and A = [aij] is an m  n
matrix. Then A = [aij] for 1  i  m, 1  j  n,
i.e., each element in A is multiplied by .
1 2 3 
Example: A  0 1 4 . Evaluate 3A.
 
 3  1 3  2 3  3  3 6 9 
3A     
 3  0 3  1 3  4   0 3 12 

In particular, , i.e., A = [aij]. It’s called

the negative of A. Note: A = 0 is a zero matrix 12
1.2 Operations of matrices
Properties
Matrices A, B and C are conformable,
A + B = B + A (commutative law)
A + (B +C) = (A + B) +C (associative law)
(A + B) = A + B, where  is a scalar
(distributive law)

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1.2 Operations of matrices
Matrix multiplication
If A = [aij] is a m  p matrix and B = [bij] is a p
 n matrix, then AB is defined as a m  n
matrix p C = AB, where C= [cij] with
cij   aik bkj  ai1b1 j  ai 2b2 j  ...  aipb pj for 1  i  m, 1  j  n.
k 1
 1 2 
1 2 3   2 3
Example: A
0 1 4  , B    and C = AB.
 
Evaluate c21.  5 0 
 1 2
1 2 3  
0 1 4  2 3  c21  0  (1)  1 2  4  5  22
  5 0 
 14
1.2 Operations of matrices
Matrix multiplication
 1 2 
1 2 3 
Example: A  0 1 4 , B   2 3 , Evaluate C =
 
AB.  5 0 
 c11  1  (1)  2  2  3  5  18
 1 2   c  1 2  2  3  3  0  8
1 2 3      12
0 1 4   2 3  
   5 0 c21  0  (1)  1  2  4  5  22
   c22  0  2  1  3  4  0  3

 1 2 
1 2 3    18 8
C  AB     2 3   
 0 1 4   5 0  22 3 
  15
1.2 Operations of matrices
Matrix multiplication
In particular, A is a 1  m matrix and
B is a m  1 matrix, i.e.,  b11 
b 
A  a11 a12 ... a1m  B   21 
 
 
bm1 
m
then C = AB is a scalar. C   a1k bk1  a11b11  a12b21  ...  a1mbm1
k 1

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1.2 Operations of matrices
Matrix multiplication
BUT BA is a m  m matrix!
 b11   b11a11 b11a12  b11a1m 
b  b a b a b a 
BA   21  a11 a12 ... a1m    21 11 21 12 21 1m 

     
   
b
 m1  b a b
 m1 11 m1 12a b a
m1 1m 

So AB  BA in general !

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 1.2 Operations of matrices
Properties
Matrices A, B and C are conformable,
A(B + C) = AB + AC
(A + B)C = AC + BC
A(BC) = (AB) C
AB  BA in general
However

AB = 0 NOT necessarily imply A = 0 or B = 0

AB = AC NOT necessarily imply B = C 18
1.3 Types of matrices

Identity matrix
The inverse of a matrix
The transpose of a matrix
Symmetric matrix
Orthogonal matrix

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1.3 Types of matrices
Identity matrix
A square matrix whose elements aij = 0, for
i > j is called upper triangular, i.e.,  a11 a12  a1n 
0 a22 a2 n 

   
 
0 0 ann 

A square matrix whose elements aij = 0, for

i < j is called lower triangular, i.e.,  a11 0  0 
a a22 0 
 21
   
 
 an1 an 2 ann 
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1.3 Types of matrices
Identity matrix
Both upper and lower triangular, i.e., aij = 0, for
i  j , i.e.,  a11 0  0 
0 a22 0 
D
   
 
0 0 ann 

is called a diagonal matrix, simply

D  diag[a11 , a22 ,..., ann ]

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1.3 Types of matrices
Identity matrix

In particular, a11 = a22 = … = ann = 1, the

matrix is called identity matrix.
Properties: AI = IA = A
1 0 0 
1 0  0 1 0
Examples of identity matrices: 0 1  and  
  0 0 1 

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1.3 Types of matrices
Special square matrix
AB  BA in general. However, if two square
matrices A and B such that AB = BA, then A
and B are said to be commute.

Can you suggest two matrices that must

commute with a square matrix A?
Ans: A itself, the identity matrix, ..

If A and B such that AB = -BA, then A and B

are said to be anti-commute.
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1.3 Types of matrices
The inverse of a matrix
If matrices A and B such that AB = BA = I,
then B is called the inverse of A (symbol: A-1);
and A is called the inverse of B (symbol: B-1).
1 2 3   6 2 3
Example: A  1 3 3  B   1 1 0 
1 2 4   1 0 1 

Show B is the the inverse of matrix A.

1 0 0 
 
Ans: Note that AB  BA  0 1 0 
Can you show the 0 0 1 
details? 24
1.3 Types of matrices
The transpose of a matrix
The matrix obtained by interchanging the
rows and columns of a matrix A is called the
transpose of A (write AT).
1 2 3
Example: A
4 5 6 
  1 4
The transpose of A is AT   2 5 
 3 6 

For a matrix A = [aij], its transpose AT = [bij],

where bij = aji.

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1.3 Types of matrices
Symmetric matrix
A matrix A such that AT = A is called
symmetric, i.e., aji = aij for all i and j.
A + AT must be symmetric. Why?
1 2 3 
Example: A   2 4 5 is symmetric.
 3 5 6 

A matrix A such that AT = -A is called skew-

symmetric, i.e., aji = -aij for all i and j.
A - AT must be skew-symmetric. Why?
26
1.3 Types of matrices
Orthogonal matrix
A matrix A is called orthogonal if AAT = ATA = I,
i.e., AT = A-1
1/ 3 1/ 6 1/ 2 
 
Example: prove that A  1/ 3 2 / 6 0  is
 
orthogonal. 1/ 3 1/ 6 1/ 2 

 1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3 
 
Since, T
A   1/ 6 2 / 6 1/ 6  . Hence, AAT = ATA = I.
 
 1/ 2 0 1/ 2 
Can you show the
details?
We’ll see that orthogonal matrix represents a
rotation in fact! 27
1.4 Properties of matrix

(AB)-1 = B-1A-1
(AT)T = A and (A)T = AT
(A + B)T = AT + BT
(AB)T = BT AT

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1.5 Determinants
Determinant of order 2
 a11 a12 
Consider a 2  2 matrix: A
a22 
 a21

Determinant of A, denoted | A |, is a number

and can be evaluated by
a11 a12
| A |  a11 a22  a12 a21
a21 a22

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1.5 Determinants
Determinant of order 2
easy to remember (for order 2 only)..
a11 a12
| A |   a11 a22  a12 a21
a21 a22
- +

1 2
Example: Evaluate the determinant: 3 4
1 2
 1  4  2  3  2
3 4

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1.5 Determinants
The following properties are true for
determinants of any order.
1. If every element of a row (column) is zero,
1 2
e.g.,  1 0  2  0  0 , then |A| = 0.
0 0

determinant of a
matrix = that of its
2. |AT| = |A| transpose

3. |AB| = |A||B|
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1.5 Determinants
 a11 a12 
For any 2x2 matrix A
 a21 a22 
1  a22  a12 
Its inverse can be written as 1
A 
A a a11 
 21

 1 0 
Example: Find the inverse of A
1 2 
 
The determinant of A is -2
 1 0 
Hence, the inverse of A is 1
A  
1/ 2 1/ 2 
How to find an inverse for a 3x3 matrix?
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1.5 Determinants of order 3
1 2 3
Consider an example: A   4 5 6 
7 8 9 

Its determinant can be obtained by:

1 2 3
4 5 1 2 1 2
A  4 5 6 3 6 9
7 8 7 8 4 5
7 8 9
 3  3  6  6   9  3  0

You are encouraged to find the determinant

by using other rows or columns 33
1.6 Inverse of a 33 matrix
1 2 3 
Cofactor matrix of A  0 4 5 
1 0 6 

The cofactor for each element of matrix A:

4 5 0 5 0 4
A11   24 A12   5 A13   4
0 6 1 6 1 0

2 3 1 3 1 2
A21   12 A22  3 A23   2
0 6 1 6 1 0

2 3 1 3 1 2
A31   2 A32    5 A33  4
4 5 0 5 0 4
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1.6 Inverse of a 33 matrix
1 2 3 
Cofactor matrix of A  0 4 5  is then given
by: 1 0 6 

 24 5 4 
 12 3 2 
 
 2 5 4 
35
1.6 Inverse of a 33 matrix
1 2 3 
Inverse matrix of A  0 4 5  is given by:
1 0 6 

T
 24 5 4   24 12 2 
1 1   1  
A   12 3 2  5 3  5
A  22  
 2 5 4   4 2 4 

 12 11  6 11 1 11 
  5 22 3 22 5 22 
  2 11 1 11 2 11 

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