Multiplexing and multiple access techniques Multiplexing and multiple access techniques

What is Multipexing

It is the process of sending signals from two or more different sources simultaneously over a single communication channel. Multiplexing is done by using a device called multiplexer(MUX) that combines n input lines to gernate one output line i.e (many to one).Therefore multiplexer (MUX) has serval inputs one output. At the receiving end , a device demultiplexer (DEMUX) is used that separtes signal into its components.so DEMUX has one input an sevral outputs.

Why Need Multiplexing

Multiplexing is used in situations where the transmitting media is having higher bandwidth, but the signals have lower bandwidth. Hence there is a possibility of sending number of signals simultaneously. In this situation multiplexing can be used. Multiplexing can be used :

To send a large number of signals simultaneously. reduce the cost of transmission To make effective use of the available bandwidth

Concept of Multiplexing

The multiplexer is connected to the demultiplexer by a single data link. The multiplexer combines (multiplexes) data from these n input lines and transmits them through the high capacity data link, which is being de-multiplexed at the other end and is delivered to the appropriate output lines. Thus, Multiplexing can also be defined as a technique that allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link.

The Concept of Multiplexing

Sharing the medium

Multiplexing in networks

Main purpose is ?

Multiplexer example

The Basic Types of Multiplexing

There are four basic approaches to multiplexing that each have a set of variations and implementations
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)

TDM and FDM are widely used WDM is a form of FDM used for optical fiber CDM is a mathematical approach used in cell phone mechanisms

Space division multiplexing (SDM)

Space division multiplexing (SDM) is nothing more than the provision of multiple fixed bandwidth channels by multiple physical paths (i.e., pairs of wires or optical fibers). A good example of SDM is the use of a 25-pair cable to carry the conversations of 25 individual users from the customer's premises to the local telephone companys central office location. In wired communication, space-division multiplexing simply implies different point-to-point wires for different channels. Examples include an analogue stereo audio cable, with one pair of wires for the left channel and another for the right channel, and a multipair telephone cable. By some arguments, SDM is not a multiplexing scheme at all, since it does not support multiple communication channels on a single medium. However, the concept is an important one because it occurs both in the deployment of transmission facilities as well as the internal architecture of some switches.

Frequency Division Multiplexing

In frequency division multiplexing, the available bandwidth of a single physical medium is subdivided into several independent frequency channels. Independent message signals are translated into different frequency bands using modulation techniques, which are combined by a linear summing circuit in the multiplexer, to a composite signal. The resulting signal is then transmitted along the single channel by electromagnetic means as shown in Fig. 2.7.2. Basic approach is to divide the available bandwidth of a single physical medium into a number of smaller, independent frequency channels.

Using modulation, independent message signals are translated into different frequency bands. All the modulated signals are combined in a linear summing circuit to form a composite signal for transmission. The carriers used to modulate the individual message signals are called sub-carriers, shown as f1, f2, , fn in Fig. 2.7.3 (a). At the receiving end the signal is applied to a bank of band-pass filters, which separates individual frequency channels. The band pass filter outputs are then demodulated and distributed to different output channels as shown in Fig. 2.7.3(b).

Frequency Division Multiplexing

Advantage of FDM arises from the simultaneous use of a transmission medium by multiple pairs of entities We imagine FDM as providing each pair with a private transmission path

Practical FDM systems - there are some limitations

as if the pair had a separate physical transmission medium

If the frequencies of two channels are too close, interference can occur Furthermore, demultiplexing hardware that receives a combined signal must be able to divide the signal into separate carriers Designers choosing a set of carrier frequencies with a gap between them known as a guard band

Figures 11.4 and 11.5 show an example

that allocates 200 KHz to each of 6 channels with a guard band of 20 KHz between each
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Frequency Division Multiplexing

17

Frequency Division Multiplexing

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Using a Range of Frequencies Per Channel

Why does the example allocate blocks of frequencies? Consider the following characteristics of FDM:
Long-lived: FDM, the idea of dividing the electromagnetic spectrum into channels, arose in early experiments in radio Widely used: FDM is used in broadcast radio and television, cable television, and the AMPS cellular telephone Analog: FDM multiplexing and demultiplexing hardware accepts and delivers analog signals
Even if a carrier has been modulated to contain digital information, FDM hardware treats the carrier as an analog wave

Versatile: Because it filters on ranges of frequency without examining other aspects of signals, FDM is versatile

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Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)

In frequency division multiplexing, all signals operate at the same time with different frequencies, but in Time-division multiplexing all signals operate with same frequency at different times. This is a base band transmission system, where an electronic commuters sequentially samples all data source and combines them to form a composite base band signal, which travels through the media and is being demultiplexed into appropriate independent message signals by the corresponding commutor at the receiving end

The incoming data from each source are briefly buffered. Each buffer is typically one bit or one character in length. The buffers are scanned sequentially to form a composite data stream. The scan operation is sufficiently rapid so that each buffer is emptied before more data can arrive. Composite data rate must be at least equal to the sum of the individual data rates. The composite signal can be transmitted directly or through a modem. The multiplexing operation is shown in Fig

As shown in the Fig 2.7.7 the composite signal has some dead space between the successive sampled pulses, which is essential to prevent interchannel cross talks. Along with the sampled pulses, one synchronizing pulse is sent in each cycle. These data pulses along with the control information form a frame. Each of these frames contain a cycle of time slots and in each frame, one or more slots are dedicated to each data source. The maximum bandwidth (data rate) of a TDM system should be at least equal to the same data rate of the sources.

Synchronous TDM is called synchronous mainly because each time slot is preassigned to a fixed source. The time slots are transmitted irrespective of whether the sources have any data to send or not. Hence, for the sake of simplicity of implementation, channel capacity is wasted. Although fixed assignment is used TDM, devices can handle sources of different data rates. This is one by assigning fewer slots per cycle to the slower input devices than the faster devices. Both multiplexing and demultiplexing operation for synchronous TDM are shown in Fig. 2.7.8.

Statistical Time-division Multiplexing

any of the time slots reduce overhead. One drawback of the TDM approach, as discussed earlier, is that min the frame are wasted. It is because, if a particular terminal has no data to transmit at particular instant of time, an empty time slot will be transmitted. An efficient alternative to this synchronous TDM is statistical TDM, also known as asynchronous TDM or Intelligent TDM. It dynamically allocates the time slots on demand to separate input channels, thus saving the channel capacity. As with Synchronous TDM, statistical multiplexers also have many I/O lines with a buffer associated to each of them.

Statistical Time-division Multiplexing

During the input, the multiplexer scans the input buffers, collecting data until the frame is filled and send the frame. At the receiving end, the demultiplexer receives the frame and distributes the data to the appropriate buffers. The difference between synchronous TDM and asynchronous TDM is illustrated with the help of Fig. 2.7.9. It may be noted that many slots remain unutilised in case synchronous TDM, but the slots are fully utilized leading to smaller time for transmission and better utilization of bandwidth of the medium. In case of statistical TDM, the data in each slot must have an address part, which identifies the source of data. Since data arrive from and are distributed to I/O lines unpredictably, address nformation is required to assure proper delivery as shown in Fig. 2.7.10.. This leads to more overhead per slot. Relative addressing can be used to

Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)

Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is conceptually same as the FDM, except that the multiplexing and demultiplexing involves light signals transmitted through fibre-optic channels. The idea is the same: we are combining different frequency signals. However, the difference is that the frequencies are very high. It is designed to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre-optic cable. Very narrow band of light signal from different source are combined to make a wider band of light. At the receiver the signals are separated with the help of a demultiplexer as shown in Fig. 2.7.5.

Multiplexing and demultiplexing of light signals can be done with the help of a prism as shown in Fig. 2.7.6. From the basic knowledge of physics we know that light signal is bent by different amount based on the angle of incidence and wavelength of light as shown by different colours in the figure. One prism performs the role of a multiplexer by combining lights having different frequencies from different sources. The composite signal can be transmitted through an optical fibre cable over long distances, if required. At the other end of the optical fibre cable the composite signal is applied to another prism to do the reverse operation, the function of a demultiplexer.

MULTIPLE ACCESS
A limited amount of bandwidth is allocated for wireless services. A wireless system is required to accommodate as many users as possible by effectively sharing the limited bandwidth. The term multiple access could be defined as a means of allowing multiple users to simultaneously share the finite bandwidth with least possible degradation in the performance of the system.

There are several techniques

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

In this technique the bandwidth is divided into a number of channels and distributed among users with a finite portion of bandwidth for permanent use. The channels are assigned only when demanded by the users. FDMA channels have narrow bandwidth (30Khz) and therefore they are usually implemented in narrowband systems.

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Even though no two users use the same frequency band at the same time, guard bands are introduced between frequency bands to minimize adjacent channel interference. Guard bands are unused frequency slots that separate neighboring channels.

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

American Mobile Phone System (AMPS)

Total Bandwidth 25 MHz Each Channel 30 KHz

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing(OFDM)

It is a special kind of FDM The spacing between carriers are such that they are orthogonal to one another Therefore no need of guard band between carriers. One example makes the thing clear

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Example of OFDM

Lets we have following information bits

1, 1, -1, -1, 1, 1, 1, -1, 1, -1, -1, -1, -1, 1, -1, -1,

C1 1 1 1 -1 -1 -1

Just converts the serials bits to parallel bits

C2 1 1 -1 1 1 -1 C3 -1 1 -1 -1 1 1 C4 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 1

Example of OFDM cont..

Modulate each column with corresponding sub-carrier using BPSK

Modulated signal for C1

Modulated signal for C2

Modulated signal for C3

Modulated signal for C4

Example of OFDM cont..

Final OFDM Signal = Sum of all signal

V(t)

Generated OFDM signal, V(t)

OFDM-FDMA (OFDMA)

Each terminal occupies a subset of sub-carriers Subset is called an OFDMA traffic channel Each traffic channel is assigned exclusively to one user at any time

user4 user3 user2 user1

OFDM-FDMA (OFDMA)

The IEEE 802.16e/ WiMax use OFDMA as Multiple access technique

Bandwidth options 1.25, 5, 10, or 20 MHz Entire bandwidth divided into 128, 512, 1024 or 2048 sub carriers 20 MHz bandwidth with 2048 sub carriers has 9.8 KHz spacing between sub carriers

OFDM-FDMA (System View)

Advantages of OFDMA

Multi-user Diversity
broadband signals experience frequency selective fading OFDMA allows different users to transmit over different portions of the broadband spectrum (traffic channel) Different users perceive different channel qualities, a deep faded channel for one user may still be favorable to others

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Advantages of OFDMA cont..

Multi-user Diversity

Advantages of OFDMA cont..

Efficient use of Spectrum

4/3 Hz per symbol

6/5 Hz per symbol

Advantages of OFDMA cont..

Receiver Simplicity It eliminates the intra-cell interference avoiding CDMA type of multi-user detection Orthogonality of code destroyed by selective fading Only FFT processor is required Bit Error Rate performance is better only in Fading environment

Disadvantages of OFDMA

Peak to average power ratio (PAPR)

The large amplitude variation increases in-band noise and increases the BER when the signal has to go through amplifier nonlinearities.

Disadvantages of OFDMA cont..

Synchronization Tight Synchronization between users are required for FFT in receiver Pilot signals are used for synchronizations Co-channel interference
Dealing with this is more complex in OFDM than in CDMA

Dynamic channel allocation with advanced coordination among adjacent base stations
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Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

In digital systems, continuous transmission is not required because users do not use the allotted bandwidth all the time. In such systems, TDMA is a complimentary access technique to FDMA. Global Systems for Mobile communications (GSM) uses the TDMA technique. In TDMA, the entire bandwidth is available to the user but only for a finite period of time. In most cases the available bandwidth is divided into fewer channels compared to FDMA and the users are allotted time slots during which they have the entire channel bandwidth at their disposal.

Guard time is a spacing in time between the TDMA bursts. In cellular communications, when a user moves from one cell to another there is a chance that user could experience a call loss if there are no free time slots available. TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception. This type of duplexing is referred to as Time division duplexing (TDD). TDD does not require duplexers.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

GSM
Time slot 0.577 ms Frame 4.6 ms 8 time slots per frame Frequency band 20 KHz

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Code Division Multiple Access

In CDMA, all the users occupy the same bandwidth, however they are all assigned separate codes, which differentiates them from each other. CDMA systems utilize a spread spectrum technique in which a spreading signal, which is uncorrelated to the signal and has a large bandwidth, is used to spread the narrow band message signal

Each user has his own code word which is orthogonal to the codes of other users. In order to detect the user, the receiver is required to know the code word used by the transmitter. Unlike TDMA, CDMA does not require time synchronization between the users. A CDMA system experiences a problem called self-jamming which arises when the preading codes used for different users are not exactly

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

IS-95
Orthogonal Walsh codes 64 codes (channels) One pilot channel Seven paging channels 55 traffic channels Each carrier 1.25 MHz

A comparative study between the above three access technologies with respect to time and frequency is as shown below.

Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

SDMA utilizes the spatial separation of the users in order to optimize the use of the frequency spectrum. A primitive form of SDMA is when the same frequency is re-used in different cells in a cellular wireless network. However for limited co-channel interference it is required that the cells be sufficiently separated. This limits the number of cells a region can be divided into and hence limits the frequency reuse factor.

It uses a Smart Antenna technique that employs antenna arrays backed by some intelligent signal processing to steer the antenna pattern in the direction of the esired user and places nulls in the direction of the interfering signals Therefore it becomes imperative to use other multiple access techniques in conjunction with SDMA. When different areas are covered by the antenna beam, frequency can be re-used, in which case TDMA or CDMA is employed, for different frequencies FDMA can be used.

Medium Access Control (MAC)

General Categories of Medium Access

Random Access Controlled Access

Random Access Traits

Attempt to ensure equal access to the medium for all stations No scheduling or polling Susceptible to collisions

Two or more stations trying to access the medium at the same, resulting in their frames interfering with each other.

Random Access Issues

When can a station access the medium? What should a station do if the medium is occupied? What will determine the success or failure of a given transmission? What should a station do if a collision occurs?

Random Access Protocols

Aloha Slotted Aloha CSMA CSMA/CD CSMA/CA

ALOHA
Developed by the University of Hawaii to network the Hawaiian islands in 1970 Wireless LAN at 9600 bps Simple

Station sends frame as soon when it has a frame to send It does not check the medium for availability It does not check for collisions If an acknowledgement is not received within two propagation periods, it resends the frame

ALOHA Throughput
First transmission Retransmission

t0-X

t0

t0+X

t0+X+2tprop
Time-out Backoff period

t0+X+2tprop +
Retransmission if necessary

Vulnerable period

Assume frames arrive at a rate G which is called the total arrival rate or total load
Includes both original frames and retransmited frames due to collisions

Throughput S is the product of G and the probability of no collision

 The vulnerability window for a transmission is shown to be 2X seconds long Assuming frames are generated by a Poisson distribution at rate G, the probability of k transmissions occurring within the 2X second interval is

Therefore, the probability of no collision equals the probability of 0 transmissions within the 2X second interval is So throughput for ALOHA is given by

Slotted ALOHA
Improves the performance of ALOHA by reducing the probability of collisions Time is divided into slots of X (Tfram ) e seconds Stations wishing to transmit can only begin a transmission at the beginning of a time slot

kX (k+1)X
Vulnerable period

t0 +X+2tprop
Time-out Backoff period

t0 +X+2tprop +
Retransmission if necessary

Vulnerability period is reduced to X seconds P[no collision] = Throughput:

ALOHA vs. Slotted ALOHA

Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

Reduces the probability of collision by sensing the medium for the presence of a frame prior to transmitting
Listen before talking

Collisions can still occur If a frame is sensed on the medium, then a persistence strategy is employed

Vulnerability time = tprop

Persistence
Persistence refers to the action a station takes if it senses a carrier on a CSMA system. Three persistence strategies:

Nonpersistent 1-Persistent p-Persistent

Nonpersistent
A station with a frame to send senses the line If the line is idle, the frame is sent w/o delay If the line is busy, the station waits a random amount of time before sensing the line again (backoff algorithm) Probability of collision is reduced but the efficiency is decreased

Medium has significant idle periods even if stations have frames to send

Nonpersistent

1-Persistent
A station with a frame to send senses the line If the line is idle, the frame is sent w/o delay If the line is busy, the station continues to sense the channel until the line is idle and then transmits If more than one station is waiting a collision will occur Relatively high collision rate

1-Persistent

p-Persistent

After a station senses an idle line it may or may not send the frame
Sends with probability p Refrains with probability 1-p

A random number generator is used to determine whether the station sends If the station refrains from sending, it waits one time slot before sensing again Fewer collisions than 1-Persistent

p-Persistent

Non-persistent CSMA
S
0.81

0.01

0.51

0.14

0.1

G
1

S vs. G for different values of a

1-Persistent CSMA
S
0.53

0.45 0.16

0.01

0.1

G
1

S vs. G for different values of a

CSMA-CD
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection When a frame is sent the line is monitored to determine if a collision occurs

2 tprop is required before determining a transmission occurred without collision Used in Ethernet

No collision: successful transmission Collision: the station sends a jam signal and waits a random amount of time (backoff algorithm) before sensing the medium again

Backoff Algorithm
IEEE 802.3 standard specifies the truncated binary exponential backoff algorithm A frame undergoing its nth retransmission attempt determines the delay by selecting an integer between the range of 0 and 2k-1 and multiplying by 2tprop , where k = min(n, 10) Typically a maximum of 15 retransmissions are attempted before the frame is aborted

CSMA-CD

CSMA-CA
CSMA with Collision Avoidance Collisions are completely avoided by using appropriate delays, acknowledgements, and time-out values. Backoff algorithm is also employed Method similar to that used in IEEE 802.11 (Wireless LAN)

CSMA-CA

Controlled Medium Access

Most common method is Token Passing

A token is passed around a physical or logical ring Only the station with the token may transmit

Other methods:
Reservation Systems Polling