HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Boiling and Condensation

Dr. N. R. Banapurmath & Dr. P.P. Revankar
Professor, School of Mechanical Engineering
KLE Technological University
 CHAPTER NO: 7
Condensation and Boiling -Types of condensation (discussion only) Nusselt’s
theory for laminar condensation on a vertical flat surface [No Derivation]. Use
of correlations for condensation. Regimes of pool boiling pool boiling
correlations [Theory].
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter student should be able to:
Explain terms associated with condensation and boiling and use co-
relations for film wise condensation on plane surfaces, horizontal tubes
and tube-banks.
Explain boiling processes and using co-relations to solve physical
problems.
Explain the utility of condensation and Boiling in problems of heat
transfer.
 INTRODUCTION
 Boiling and condensation are important phase change processes in heat
exchangers such as boilers, condensers.
 Condensers and boilers constitute an important and widely used heat
exchangers.
 In condensers phase change occurs from vapour into liquid and in
evaporators phase change occurs from liquid into vapour.
 Phase changes are accomplished by the process of boiling or condensation
 High heat transfer rates with high heat transfer coefficients (greater than
1000 W/m2K) are encountered in boiling and condensation processes.
 CONDENSATION
 Condensation occurs when vapor comes into contact with a surface at a
temperature lower than saturation temperature (Tsat) corresponding to its
vapor pressure.

 Condensation is heat transfer process -saturated vapor is converted into a

liquid by means of removing latent heat of condensation.

 Vapor starts condensing on surface resulting in the formation of condensate.

 The nature of condensation depends upon whether condensate or liquid

formed wets or does not wet the solid surface.
 MECHANISM OF CONDENSATION
1. Drop-wise condensation
Drops of liquid form from vapor at particular nucleation sites on a solid surface
and drops remain separate during growth until carried away by vapor shear or
gravity
2. Film-condensation
Drops formed quickly coalesce to produce a continuous film of liquid
3. Direct contact condensation
The vapor condenses directly on (liquid) coolant surface which is sprayed in
vapor space
4. Homogenous condensation
Liquid forms directly from supersaturated vapor-away from any macroscopic
surface
 FILM AND DROP CONDENSATION:
Condensation accompanied by wetting of surface and results in formation of a
smooth film is called Film Condensation.
Liquid not wetting solid surface and leads to condensate that forms droplets -
Drop Condensation.

Pure vapor Pure vapor

Condensate
film
Condensate
drop

Uvap Uvap

Condensation on a vertical glass plate Film condensation

Dropwise condensation
 FILM AND DROP CONDENSATION:
These droplets grow in size and combine with neighboring droplets and may
eventually roll off the surface under the influence of gravity.
This process is called drop condensation.
Drop condensation is observed in case of oil traces present during the
condensation of steam on a highly polished surface.

Condensation on a vertical glass plate

 FILM AND DROP CONDENSATION:
Film Condensation.
Drop Condensation.

Pure vapor Pure vapor

TS’ ‘TSat

Condensate
film
Condensate TS’ ‘TSat
drop

Vapour

Uvap Uvap
Drop

Film
Dropwise condensation Vapour
Film condensation
 FILM AND DROP CONDENSATION:
Heat transfer in both film and drop condensation phenomenon is quite distinct.
The condensate on surface or wall acts as a barrier to heat transfer from the
vapour side to surface and this makes the heat transfer in both the cases
altogether different.
In drop condensation a large portion of the plate surface area is directly
exposed to the vapour.
Hence there is no film barrier to heat transfer unlike in film condensation.
Drop condensation offers much less resistance to heat flow on the vapour side
than the film condensation.
This situation results in higher heat transfer rates. The heat transfer rates in
drop condensation may be nearly ten times more than that observed in film
condensation.
 FILM AND DROP CONDENSATION:
The rate of heat transfer in both film and drop condensation phenomenon is
quite distinct.
In the film condensation process the metal surface gets wetted or blanketed by
a film that grows in thickness as it moves down the plate. A temperature
gradient exists in the film and the film represents a thermal resistance to heat
transfer.
It is obvious that higher heat transfer rates available in drop condensation
would be more than preferable compared to film condensation.
However it is extremely difficult to maintain drop condensation since most
surfaces become blanketed or wetted when exposed to a condensing vapor
over an extended period of time.
Different surface coatings and vapour additives have been used in order to
maintain drop condensation. These methods have not been met with general
success to date.
 FILM CONDENSATION THEORY
Film Condensation on a vertical plate (or Surface):
The condensation problem was first analyzed by Nusselt with
following assumptions:
1. Plate is maintained at a uniform temperature Tw which is
less than the saturation temperature Tv or Tsat of the
vapour.
2. The vapour is stationary or has low velocity and hence it
exerts no drag on the condensate motion.
3. The downward flow of condensate under the action of
gravity is laminar.
4. Flow velocity associated with condensate film is low and
the flow acceleration in the condensate layer is negligible.
5. Fluid properties are constant.
6. Heat transfer across the condensate layer is by pure
conduction and hence the liquid temperature distribution
is linear.
 FILM CONDENSATION THEORY
Film Condensation on a vertical plate (or Surface):
(Students are advised to refer to the course material supplied for the following
equation derivation). Heat transfer coefficient for a vertical plate is

The physical properties in above equation such as are evaluated at the film
temperature

The heat transfer rate is given by,

where M is mass flow rate of condensate at the bottom of the plate in kg/s, the
latent heat of vaporization in kJ/kg, A is the cross sectional area of the surface in
m2 respectively
 FILM CONDENSATION THEORY
Film Condensation on a vertical tube (or Surface):
The heat transfer coefficient derived earlier for a vertical plate can also be
applied for the condensation on the outside or inside surface of a vertical tube.
 CONDENSATION ON INCLINED SURFACES:
Film Condensation on a inclined tube:
The heat transfer coefficient for an vertical tube.

The heat transfer rate is given by,

Vapor

q
Condensate

Inclined
plate
 CONDENSATION ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE OR HORIZONTAL TUBE:
Film Condensation on a horizontal tube:
The heat transfer coefficient for a horizontal tube.

where D is the outside diameter of the tube

The heat transfer rate is given by,

 CONDENSATION ON HORIZONTAL TUBE BANKS
Film Condensation on horizontal tube banks:
The heat transfer coefficient for a horizontal tube.

where D is the outside diameter of the tube

The heat transfer rate is given by,

,
A= total heat transfer surface of the tube array =n  D L, m2
n = total number of tubes = NxN,
N = Number of tubes in vertical tier of tube bank
 CONDENSATION ON HORIZONTAL TUBE BANKS
Film Condensation on horizontal tube banks :
Condensation on horizontal tube arrangement (a) single tube (b) bank of tubes (c) drop condensation on tube tier
 REYNOLDS NUMBER FOR CONDENSATE FLOW:
In order to establish a criterion for transition from laminar to turbulent flow, a
Reynolds number for condensate flow is defined as follows:

where, is the average velocity of condensate film and is the hydraulic diameter
for the condensate flow and is given by,

where, is the cross sectional area for the condensate flow and is the wetted
perimeter.
 REYNOLDS NUMBER FOR CONDENSATE FLOW:
The Reynolds number at the lowest part of the condensing surface :

M is the mass flow rate of condensate at the lowest part of the condensing
surface in . The wetted perimeter depends on the given geometry and the same
is given for some geometries below.
L

d
d P=2L
P=L
P = PD
Ac=Ld
Ac = PDS

The wetted perimeter p, the condensate cross section area Ac and the hydraulic diameter Dh for comman
geometries
 CONDENSATION OF STEAM ON A VERTICAL PLATE:
Example (1) A vertical square plate 0.3*0.3 is exposed to steam at atmospheric
pressure and saturation temperature of 100oC. The plate temperature is 98oC.
Calculate the heat transfer and mass of steam condensed per hour.
 CONDENSATION OF STEAM ON A VERTICAL PLATE:
Solution:
Saturated steam condenses on a vertical plate. The average rates of heat transfer
and condensation are to be determined.
Assumptions
Steady operating conditions exist.
The tube is isothermal.
The density of vapour is much smaller than the density of liquid .
The condensate flow is laminar over the entire plate.
The properties of condensate or liquid water at the film temperature:
 CONDENSATION OF STEAM ON A VERTICAL TUBE:
Solution (Contd.):
The properties of steam at the saturation temperature of 100oC are

The average heat transfer coefficient for laminar film condensation on a vertical
surface is given by:
 CONDENSATION OF STEAM ON A VERTICAL TUBE:
Solution (Contd.):
The Reynolds number is determined as follows:

To find the mass flow rate of condensate M at the bottom of the plate is given by
 CONDENSATION OF STEAM ON A VERTICAL TUBE:
Solution (Contd.):

, the condensate flow is laminar.

The heat transfer rate is given by,

 CONDENSATION OF STEAM ON A VERTICAL TUBE:
Example (2) Air free saturated steam at 65oC condenses on the outer surface of
a 2.5 cm OD, 3 m long vertical tube maintained at a uniform temperature of 35oC
by the flow of cooling water through the tube. Assuming film condensation,
calculate the average heat transfer coefficient over the entire length of the tube
and the rate of condensation flow at the bottom of the tube.
 CONDENSATION OF STEAM ON A VERTICAL TUBE:
Solution:
Saturated steam condenses on a vertical tube. The average heat transfer
coefficient, rates of heat transfer and condensation are to be determined.
Assumptions
Steady operating conditions exist.
The tube is isothermal.
The density of vapour is much smaller than the density of liquid .
The condensate flow is laminar over the entire tube.
The properties of condensate or liquid water at the film temperature:
 CONDENSATION OF STEAM ON A VERTICAL TUBE:
Solution (Contd.):
The properties of steam at the saturation temperature of 65oC are
The average heat transfer coefficient for laminar film condensation on a vertical
surface is given by:
 CONDENSATION OF STEAM ON A VERTICAL TUBE:
Solution (Contd.):
The Reynolds number is determined as follows:

To find the mass flow rate of condensate M at the bottom of the plate is given by

, the condensate flow is laminar.

 CONDENSATION OF STEAM ON A HORIZONTAL TUBE:
Example (3): Condensation of Steam on a Horizontal tube
Air free saturated steam at 65oC condenses on the outer surface of a 2.5 cm OD,
3 m long vertical tube maintained at a uniform temperature of 35oC by the flow
of cooling water through the tube. Assuming film condensation, calculate the
average heat transfer coefficient over the entire length of the tube and the rate
of condensation flow at the bottom of the tube.
 CONDENSATION OF STEAM ON A HORIZONTAL TUBE:
Solution:
Saturated steam condenses on a horizontal tube. The average heat transfer
coefficient, rates of heat transfer and condensation are to be determined.
Assumptions
Steady operating conditions exist.
The tube is isothermal.
The density of vapour is much smaller than the density of liquid .
The condensate flow is laminar over the entire tube.
The properties of condensate or liquid water at the film temperature:
 CONDENSATION OF STEAM ON A HORIZONTAL TUBE:
Solution (Contd.):
The properties of steam at the saturation temperature of 65oC are
The average heat transfer coefficient for laminar film condensation on a
horizontal surface is given by:
 CONDENSATION OF STEAM ON A HORIZONTAL TUBE:
Solution (Contd.):
The Reynolds number is determined as follows:

To find the mass flow rate of condensate M at the bottom of the horizontal tube is given
by

The condensate flow rate with the horizontal tube is higher than that with vertical tube.
 CONDENSATION OF STEAM ON A VERTICAL TUBE:
Example (4)Condensation of Steam on a Vertical tube
Air free saturated steam at 65oC condenses on the outer surface of a 2.5 cm OD
vertical tube maintained at a uniform temperature of 35oC by the flow of cooling
water through the tube. Assuming film condensation, calculate the length of the
tube L for a condensate flow at of kg/s per tube.
 CONDENSATION OF STEAM ON A VERTICAL TUBE:
Solution:
Saturated steam condenses on a vertical tube. The average heat transfer
coefficient, rates of heat transfer, length of tube and condensation are to be
determined.
Assumptions
Steady operating conditions exist.
The tube is isothermal.
The density of vapour is much smaller than the density of liquid .
The condensate flow is laminar over the entire tube.
The properties of condensate or liquid water at the film temperature:
 CONDENSATION OF STEAM ON A VERTICAL TUBE:
Solution (Contd.):
The properties of steam at the saturation temperature of 65oC are
Reynold’s number for the condensate

Hence the condensate flow is in the laminar range.

The average heat transfer coefficient for laminar film condensation on a vertical
surface is given by
 CONDENSATION OF STEAM ON A VERTICAL TUBE:
Solution (Contd.):

To find the tube length we have,

 CONDENSATION OF STEAM ON A VERTICAL TUBE:
Solution (Contd.):
To find the tube length we have,
 CONDENSATION OF STEAM ON BANK OF TUBES
:
Example (5) Condensation of Steam on bank of tubes
Air free saturated steam at 85oC condenses on the outer surface of 225
horizontal tubes of 1.27 cm OD, arranged in a 15*15 array. Tube surfaces are
maintained 75oC. Assuming film condensation, calculate the average heat
transfer coefficient and the rate of condensation flow per 1 m length of the tube
bundle.
 CONDENSATION OF STEAM ON BANK OF TUBES :
Solution:
Saturated steam condenses on a horizontal tube. The average heat transfer
coefficient, rates of heat transfer and condensation are to be determined.
Assumptions
Steady operating conditions exist.
The tube is isothermal.
The density of vapour is much smaller than the density of liquid .
The condensate flow is laminar over the entire tube.
The properties of condensate or liquid water at the film temperature:
 CONDENSATION OF STEAM ON BANK OF TUBES:
Solution (Contd.):
The properties of steam at the saturation temperature of 85oC are.
The average heat transfer coefficient for laminar film condensation on a vertical
surface is given by
 CONDENSATION OF STEAM ON BANK OF TUBES:
Solution (Contd.):
The Reynolds number is determined as follows:

Mass flow rate of condensate M at the bottom of the plate is given by

The total mass flow rate of condensate per meter length of the tube bundle is:
 BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
BOILING
Boiling :transformation of liquid to vapor at a solid/liquid interface due to
convection heat transfer at surface.
Agitation of fluid by vapor bubbles facilitates large convection coefficients and
hence large heat fluxes at low-to-moderate surface-to-fluid temperature
differences.

POOL BOILING:
Occurs on heated surface submerged in a liquid pool which is not agitated
Liquid motion is due to natural convection and bubble-induced mixing.
Fluids Temperature distribution in (i) Condenser (ii) Evaporator
 POOL BOILING
Pool boiling provides a conventional means of investigating he mechanism of
heat transfer in boiling systems.
The figure shows characteristics of pool boiling for water at atmospheric
pressure.
This boiling curve indicates the variation of heat flux with temperature
difference the wire and water saturation temperature.
The pool boiling phenomenon was first investigated by Nukiyama through an
experimental investigation of convection heat transfer of an electrically heated
wire immersed in water.
The boiling was initiated on the wire surface by electrical heating
simultaneously measuring the supply voltage and current to determine the
heat flux and temperature.
 POOL BOILING
Pool boiling regimes:
The following regimes are noticed during the pool boiling phenomenon,
Free convection regime (I):
Nucleate boiling regime (II+III):
Film boiling (IV-VI):
Pool boiling regimes
 POOL BOILING

Vapor

Vapor
bubbles
Liquid

Solid Nucleate boiling schematic diagram and photograph

Film boiling
FREE CONVECTION REGIME (I):
A uniform bulk temperature far from the wall is maintained because the mixing
motions generated by natural convection (and, in boiling, by the motions of the
bubbles) mean that most of the liquid is at a fairly uniform temperature. In other
words, the temperature difference ΔT occurs within a thin layer next to the wall.
 POOL BOILING REGIMES
NUCLEATE BOILING REGIME:
When the pool as a whole has been heated to a temperature close to Tsat, the onset of nucleate boiling
occurs.
Bubbles form at nucleation sites on the wall and grow to a size at which the buoyancy force overcomes
the surface tension forces acting at the line of attachment of the bubble to the wall. The bubbles are
formed on the heater surface in this regime and these can be separated into two distinct regions.
The first region involves the bubble formation at favoured sites of the heater surface only which get
detached from it and dissipate in to the bulk liquid.
The second region involves larger number of nucleation sites with high rate of bubble generation
resulting in continuous vapour columns appearing on the surface leading to very high heat flux.
The Nucleate boiling regime is most desirable in majority of the practical applications due to the large
heat fluxes obtainable even with a lower temperature difference.
The heat flux increases rapidly with increasing temperature difference until peak heat flux is reached
that is termed as “critical heat flux”.
Further heating beyond this point leads to metallurgical melting of heating element due to large heat
flux.
 POOL BOILING REGIMES
FILM BOILING:
Heating beyond the peak heat flux point leads to reduction in heat transfer
coefficient due to the formation of vapour film at the vicinity of the heater
surface.
A film of vapor is formed that surrounds the surface and substantially impedes
heat transfer.
The film boiling regime can be distinctly separated into unstable film boiling
region, stable film boiling region and radiant boiling region.
The unstable film boiling regime vapour film is unstable, collapsing and
reforming under the influence of convective currents and surface tension.
The heat flux drops to a minimum value in stable film boiling regime due to
shielding of the heater surface by continuous formation of vapour film.
 POOL BOILING CORRELATIONS
FREE CONVECTION REGIME:
In this case
Heat flux for the free convection regime can be calculated once the heat transfer
coefficient is determined.
The heat fux is given by,
-
 POOL BOILING CORRELATIONS
NUCLEATA BOILING REGIME:
Roshenow* correlated experimental data on saturated nucleate pool boiling by
analyzing the important parameters in bubble growth.

Solving for heat flux

 POOL BOILING CORRELATIONS
NUCLEATA BOILING REGIME:

Specific heat of saturated liquid,

Constant from experimental data depending on heating surface fluid
combination
Latent heat of vaporization,
gravitational acceleration,
Prandtl number of saturated liquid
boiling heat flux,
, are wall and saturation temperature,
Dynamic viscosity of the saturated liquid,
 POOL BOILING CORRELATIONS
NUCLEATA BOILING REGIME:

are the densities of liquid and saturated vapour respectively,

Surface tension of liquid vapour interface,
1 for water and 1.7 for all other liquids

Note: In all the above equations the physical properties should be evaluated at
 PEAK HEAT FLUX (CRITICAL HEAT FLUX)
NUCLEATA BOILING REGIME:Zuber and Zuber and Tribus provided the following
equation for the peak heat flux considering the stability requirement for the
liquid-vapour interface,
1

  g (  l   v )  4  v 
qmax   v h fg  2  1  
24   v    l 
Surface tension of liquid - vapour interface,
gravitational acceleration,
Latent heat of vaporization,
boiling heat flux,
are the densities of liquid and saturated vapour respectively,
Note: In all the above equations the physical properties should be evaluated at
Example (6)
Saturated water at is boiled with a copper heating element having a heating
surface which is maintained at a uniform temperature . Calculate the boiling
heat flux as well as maximum heat flux for the nucleate boiling.
Solution: The physical properties of saturated water and vapour at the
saturation temperature of 100oC are
,

Values of CSurface/Fluid
sf for boiling Heat transfer calculations
combination Csf
Water/nickel 0.006
Water/platinum 0.013
Water/copper 0.013
Water/brass 0.006
CCL4/copper 0.013
Benzene/chromium 0.010
n-pentane/chromium 0.015
Solution (Contd.):
The average heat transfer coefficient for laminar film condensation on a vertical
surface is given by

The total heat transfer rate is given by,

Solution (Contd.):
The peak heat flux is given by,
1

  g (  l   v )  4   v 
qmax   v h fg  2  1  
24  v   l 

 3  0.0588  9.81(960.6  0.6)  

4 0.6 
qmax   0.6  2257  10  2  1 
24  ( 0 .6 )   960. 6 

qmax  1110806.37W / m 2  1.1108 MW / m 2

Example (7)
Water at atmospheric pressure and saturation temperature is boiled in a 25 cm
diameter electrically heated mechanically polished stainless steel pan. The
heated surface of the pan is maintained at a uniform temperature . Calculate the
surface heat flux and the rate of evaporation from the pan.
Surface/Fluid combination Csf
Water/nickel 0.006

Water/platinum 0.013

Water/copper 0.013

Water/brass 0.006

CCL4/copper 0.013

Benzene/chromium 0.010

n-pentane/chromium 0.015
Solution (Contd.):
The average heat transfer coefficient for laminar film condensation on a vertical
surface is given by

The total heat transfer rate is given by,

Solution (Contd.):
The peak heat flux is given by,
1

  g (  l   v )  4   v 
qmax   v h fg  2  1  
24  v   l 
1

 3  0.0588  9.81(960.6  0.6)  

4 0.6 
qmax   0.6  2257  10  2  1 
24  (0.6)   960.6 
=177264.368*[6.2625]*[1.00062]

qmax  1110806.37W / m 2  1.1108 MW / m 2

Assignment Questions
Chapter 1
1 A composite wall of a furnace has 3 layers of equal thickness having thermal conductivities in the ratio of 1:2:4. What
will be temperature drop ratio across three respective layers? What is heat lost per hour across a wall 4m high, 10m
long and 115mm thick, if the inside wall temperature is 30 oC and outside ambient temperature is 10 oC? Conductivity
of brick wall is 1.15W/mK, heat transfer coefficient for inside wall is 2.5 W/m 2K and that for outside wall is 4 W/m2 K.
2 A thin metal plate 0.1m by 0.1m is placed in a large evacuated container whose walls are kept at 300K. The bottom
surface of the plate is insulated, and the top surface is maintained at 500K as a result of electric heating. If the
emissivity of the plate is 0.8, what is the rate of heat exchange between the plate and the walls of the container take
σ =5.67X10-8W/m2 K4
3 A small hot surface at 430 K with an emissivity of 0.8 dissipates heat by radiation into the surrounding at a
temperature of 400 K. If this radiation is characterized by radiation heat transfer coefficient h r calculate its value.

4 A steam pipe of outer radius 4cm is covered with a layer of asbestos insulation of 1cm thickness, thermal conductivity
0.15 W/moC which is in turn covered by 3cm thick glass fibre insulation (k= 0.05 W/m oC). The surface of steam pipe is
at 330 oC and outer surface of fibre glass is at 30 oC. Determine interface temperature and the heat loss per meter
length of pipe
5 A plate having 10cm2 area each side is hung in middle of a room of 100m2 total surface area. The plate temperature
and emissivity are respectively 800K and 0.6, while temperature and emissivity values for the surfaces of room are
300K and 0.3 respectively. What is total heat loss from two surfaces of plate?
 Chapter 2
1 A hollow steel sphere of inside radius 10cm and outside radius of 20 cm. The thermal conductivity of steel is 10
W/mK, when the inside surface is maintained at uniform temperature of 230 oC and the outside surface dissipates heat
by convection with heat transfer coefficient of 20 W/m2 K in to the ambience at 30oC. Evaluate the insulation thickness
with k= 0.5 W/mK required to reduce the heat loss by 50 % of the uninsulated sphere. What is the overall heat
transfer coefficient?
2 A copper tube of 20mm OD, 1mm thick and 20m long (k=400 W/mK) is carries saturated steam at 150 oC (h=150 W/m2
o
C). The tube is exposed to an ambient temperature of 27 oC with heat transfer coefficient of 5 W/m2oC. Glass wool is
used for insulation (k=0.075 W/mK) with a thickness 5mm higher than critical thickness of insulation, calculate rate of
heat lost by steam and rate of condensation in kg/hr (hfg =2230 kJ/kg).
3 A wire of 2mm diameter is heated electrically while it dissipates heat to the ambient by convection with heat transfer
coefficient 125 W/m2 oC. If the wire is covered with of 0.2mm thick insulation of thermal conductivity 0.175 W/m oC will
heat loss from wire increase or decrease?
4 An electrically heated sphere 6cm diameter is exposed to 25 oC ambience with heat transfer coefficient of 20 W/m2 oC.
The surface of the sphere is maintained at 125 oC. Calculate the rate of heat loss from the sphere if it is insulated with
an insulation (k=1.0 W/moC) corresponding to its critical thickness and when the sphere is bare.
5 A cylinder 1 m long and 50 mm in diameter is placed in 45oC atmosphere. It has 12 longitudinal straight fins of 120
W/mK thermal conductivity. The fin height is 12.7 mm from cylinder and fin thickness is 0.76 mm. The heat transfer
coefficient between cylinder and atmospheric air is 17 W/m2 K. Calculate heat transfer rate and temperature at fin tip
if cylinder surface temperature is at 150oC. Assume tip of the fin to be insulated. (neglect circular plane surface on
either side)
Chapter 3

1 A small copper ball of 5 mm diameter at 500K is dropped into an oil bath whose temperature is 300K, the thermal
conductivity of copper is 400 W/mK, its density is 9000 kg/m 3 and its specific heat is 385 J/kg K. If the heat transfer
coefficient is 250 W/m2oC and lumped system analysis is assumed what is the rate of fall of the temperature of the
ball at the beginning of cooling in K/s?
2 A solid copper sphere of 10cm diameter [ρ=8954kg/m 3 Cp=383J/kg C, k=386W/moC] initially at a uniform temperature
of 250oC is suddenly immersed in a well stirred fluid which is maintained at a 50 oC uniform temperature .The fluid and
sphere has h=200W/m2oC. check if lumped system analysis is applicable to determine temperature of block at t=5 min
after immersion
3 A fused quartz sphere has a thermal diffusivity of 9.5 x 10 -7m2/s, a diameter of 2.5 cm and a k=1.52 W/mK. The sphere
initially at 25 oC is suddenly put into 200oC convective space with h= 110W/m2 oC. Find temperatures at centre and at a
radius of 6.4 mm after 4 min of immersion.
4 A 12mm diameter mild steel sphere (K=42.5W/mK) is placed in an air stream at 27˚C with h=114 W/m 2˚C. Find time
taken to cool the sphere from 540 ˚C to 95˚C and Instantaneous heat transfer rate two minutes after start of cooling.
Use: density=7850 kg/m3 Sp. heat=475J/kgK Thermal diffusivity=0.043m2/hr.
5 A long 8cm diameter chrome-steel rod (α=1.1X10-5 m2/s and k=40 W/m˚C) is initially at a uniform temperature
Ti=225˚C. It is suddenly exposed to a convective environment at T ∞=25˚C with a surface heat transfer coefficient h=50
W/m2˚C. Using transient temperature chart, determine temperature at centre, surface temperature at t=1/10 and 1h
after exposure to cooler ambient.
Chapter 4

1 Determine thickness of thermal boundary layer, local drag coefficient and local shear stress at a distance of 0.5 m from
leading edge of flat plate for boundary layer flow of air at 77 oC and a velocity of 2m/s.

2 Determine drag force exerted on a 2m long plate per 1m width of flow with air hydrogen and helium as fluids, at
atmospheric pressure and 350oC with a velocity of 5m/s.

3 The velocity profile for a laminar boundary layer flow is given by (u/u amb)=Sin [(0.5*pi*y)/δ]. Where u is the velocity at
a distance y from the plate, uamb is the free stream velocity and δ =5x/ (Rex)0.5 is the boundary layer thickness.
Determine expressions in terms of Re for: boundary layer thickness, drag force and drag coefficient.
4 Water is heated dipping a vertical 300mm square plate whose surface temperature on both sides is maintained at
140oC. Assuming initial temperature of water as 20 oC, find the heat loss from the plate per hour. Use the correlation ,
Nu=0.1 (Gr Pr )0.333
Air stream at 24oC is flowing at 0.4 m/s across a 100 W bulb at 130°C. and bulb is approximated by a 65 mm
diameter sphere, calculate: (i) The heat transfer rate, and (ii) The % of power lost due to convection.
5 A vertical plate 0.3m high and 1m wide, at uniform temperature 124˚C, is exposed to quiescent atmospheric air at
30˚C.Calculate the average heat transfer coefficient for free convection and total heat transfer rate from both surfaces
of plate by free convection into air
Chapter 5

1 Compare between the heat transfer rate from your car surface when it is moving at 80 kmph speed and when parked
at garage with no wind current. Identify the mode of convection and distinguish between them.

2 Air enters a rectangular duct measuring 30 cm x 40 cm with a velocity of 8.5m/s, temperature of 40 oC and kinematic
viscosity of 16.95 x 10-6 m2/S. What will be the Re value for flow?

3 A 5cm diameter cylinder is maintained at 80oC and placed in a nitrogen flow stream at atmospheric pressure and 20
o
C. The Nitrogen flows across the cylinder with a velocity of 5m/s. Calculate the heat from cylinder per meter length
4 Assuming that a man can be represented by a cylinder 350 mm in diameter and 1.65 m high with a surface
temperature of 28°C. Calculate the heat that would be lost while standing in a 30 km/h wind at 12°C.

5 An uninsulated air conditioning duct of rectangular c/s 1 m x 0.5 m, carrying air at 20 oC with a velocity of 10m/s, is
exposed to an ambient of 30 oC. Neglect effect of duct construction material. For air in 20-30 oC,: k=0.025 W/mK,
viscosity=18 x 10-6Pa.S, Pr= 0.73, density=1.2 kg/m3. The laminar Nusselt number is 3.4 for constant wall temperature
conditions and for turbulent flow, Nu=0.023 x Re0.8 x Pr0.33. What is the heat transfer per m length of the duct?
Chapter 6

1 A copper pipe (k=350 W/m K) of 17.5mm ID and 20mm OD conveys water and oil flows through annular passage. On
water side h=4600 W/m2K and F= 0.00034 m2K/W. The values for oil side are 1200 W/m2K and 0.00086 m2K/W.
Calculate U based on outside of inner surface.
2 A shell and tube heat exchanger is to cool oil(C p=2000J/kgK) flowing at 6kg/s from 65 ˚C to 35˚C by using water of
10kg/s flow rate with inlet temperature 20˚C.Average heat transfer coefficient Um=600w/m2K. Calculate heat transfer
area for parallel flow and counter-flow
3 A two shell pass, four tube pass heat exchanger is used to cool processed water from 75˚C to 25˚Con the tube side at a
rate of 5kg/s with cold water entering the shell side at 10˚C with flow rate of 6kg/s. If the overall heat transfer
coefficient is Um=750w/m2K
4 Steam condenses at 60˚C on shell side of a steam condenser while cooling water flows inside tubes at 3kg/s.The inlet
and outlet temperatures of water are 20˚C and 50˚C respectively. Considering U m=2000w/m2K. Calculate the surface
area required.
5 In a counter-flow heat exchanger, for hot fluid heat capacity is 2kJ/kg K, mass flow rate is 5kg/S, inlet temperature is
150oC, outlet temperature is 100oC. For cold fluid heat capacity is 4 kJ/kg K, mass flow rate is 10 kg/s, inlet
temperature is 20 oC. Neglecting heat transfer to surroundings, what is outlet temperature of the cold fluid?
 Chapter 7
1 A condenser is to be designed to condense 1800 kg/h of dry and saturated steam at a pressure of 10kPa. A
square array of 400 tubes, each of 8 mm in diameter, is to be used. If the tube surface temperature is to
be maintained at 24oC, calculate the following:(i) The heat transfer coefficient, and (ii) The length of each
tube assuming single pass.
2 A steam condenser consisting of a square array of 625 horizontal tubes, 6mm in diameter, is installed
at the exhaust hood of a steam turbine. The tubes are exposed saturated steam at 15 kPa. If the tube
surface temperature is maintained at 25oC calculate:
(i) The heat transfer coefficient, and (ii) The rate at which steam is condensed per unit length of the tubes.
Assume film condensation on tubes and absence of non-condensable gases.
3 Find the surface area required for a surface condenser dealing with 25000 kg of saturated steam per hour at
a pressure of 0.5 bar. Temperature of condensing water is 25oC. Cooling water is heated from 15oC to 25oC
while passing through the condenser. Assume heat transfer coefficient of 10kW/m2 K. The condenser has 2
water passes with tubes of 19mm OD and 1.2mm thickness. Find the length and number of tubes per pass.
Assume correction factor for two tube pass exchanger as 0.86 for the saturation temperature of 32.55oC and
latent heat of 2560kJ/kg, Cp=4.18 kJ/kgoC, density of 1000kg/m3 at saturation pressure of 0.5 bar
4 A steam condenser consisting of 625 horizontal tubes (1.25cm OD and 3cm long) in a 25x25 array.
Saturated steam at 50˚C(12.35kPa) condenses on outer surface of tubes maintained at 30˚C. Find average
heat transfer coefficient, heat transfer rate and condensation in condenser.
5 The boiling and condensation processes have high magnitude of heat transfer coefficients owing to phase
changes. Justify the statement with relevant illustrations.
Chapter 8

1 Radiation mode of heat transfer is prominent mode in thermal solar gadgets. Illustrate the application of
these indicated laws of radiation in the design of a solar based thermal gadget for room heating: Stefan
Boltzmann law, Plank’s Distribution law, Wein’s Displacement law and Kirchhoff’s law.
2 A solid sphere of diameter 10cm heated to 1000oC is suspended in a room whose walls are at 30oC.
Compute radiation losses and time taken by sphere to cool to 500oC assuming emissivity of sphere as 0.1
and density of 8.68 g/cc, specific heat of 0.098 J/kg K air temperature is 100°C. What is the convection heat
transfer coefficient? The heater surface is exposed to air that is also at 20°C but for which h = 50 W/m2K.
What is the corresponding surface temperature? What are the consequences of such an event?
3 The heat exchange by radiation between surfaces is predominantly a surface phenomenon guided by
incident radiations and properties of materials. Give your interpretations on black surface, grey surface and
configuration factor for radiation heat transfer between surfaces. Demonstrate through relevant example
methodology to estimate shape factor between two surfaces .
4 Calculate the heat dissipated by radiation through a 0.2-m2 opening of a furnace at 1100K into an ambient at
300K. Assume both the furnace and the ambient to be black bodies.

5 A solid cylinder (surface 2) is located at the centre of a hollow sphere (surface 1). The diameter of the
sphere is 1m, while the cylinder has a diameter and length of 0.5 m each. What is the radiation configuration
factor F1-2?