5.

SEISMOLOGY AND
EARTHQUAKE….
SEISMIC HAZARD ANALYSIS(MSTR502)

Er. Umesh Jung Thapa 1

How is an Earthquake’s Epicenter Located?
Intensity

•It is a qualitative measure of EQ

•It is the way of measuring the effects of an
EQ at different sites
•Generally express as Roman Numbers (I, II,
……XII)
•Intensity does not require any instrumental
records, (it depends very much upon the visual
observations and experience of the people)
•Intensity data are used to develop the seismic
risk map of an area or country
Intensity cont….

The intensity of the an EQ depends upon

the following factors:
1.Earth magnitude:
•The bigger the EQ (more magnitude),
the higher is the damage to lives and
property
2. Distance from the hypocenter or
Epicenter:
•The places near the epicenter suffer
more damage as compare to those which
are farther
Intensity cont….

3. Types of foundation materials:

•Hard rock foundations can vibrate more
by P and S waves from a near by
epicenter and soft soil can vibrate more
by surface waves

4. Building Style:
•(The loss of lives is not because of
earthquake, but because of collapse of
building, bridges and other structures)
•Building style: design of building,
building materials, height and shape of
the building etc.
•For example, P and S waves can cause
higher damage to brick or stone building
especially the shorter ones.
•The surface waves can come great
damage to tall buildings built on soft soil

5. Duration of shaking
•If the shaking duration is more, the
damage is more.
Intensity Scale

The intensity scales are developed based on

following things:
•The experience of people
•Performance of buildings
•Change in natural surrounding
There are two scales which are commonly used:
1. MMI (Modified Mercalli Intensity)
Scale: 12-level scale proposed in 1931 by wood
and Neumann, who adapted the MCS scale to
the California data set. It is used in North
America and several other countries
Intensity Scale…..

2. MSK (Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik)
Intensity Scale: 12-level scale developed
in Central and Eastern Europe and used in
several other countries
1. MMI (Modified Mercalli Intensity) Scale

I. Not felt except by a very few under

especially favorable circumstances.

II. Felt only by a few persons at rest,

especially on upper floors of buildings.
Delicately suspended objects may
swing.

III. Felt quite noticeably indoors,

especially on upper floors of buildings,
but many people do not recognize it as
an earthquake. Standing motor cars
1. MMI (Modified Mercalli Intensity)
Scale….

IV. During the day felt indoors by many,

outdoors by few. At night some
awakened. Dishes, windows, and doors
disturbed; walls make creaking sound.
Sensation like heavy truck striking
building. Standing motorcars rock
noticeably.
1. MMI (Modified Mercalli Intensity)
Scale….

V. Felt by nearly everyone; many

awakened. Some dishes, windows,
etc., broken; a few instances of
cracked plaster; unstable objects
overturned. Disturbance of trees,
poles, and other tall objects sometimes
noticed. Pendulum clocks may stop.
1. MMI (Modified Mercalli Intensity) Scale….

VI. Felt by all; many frightened and run

outdoors. Some heavy furniture moved;
a few instances of fallen plaster or
damaged chimneys. Damage slight.

VII. Everybody runs outdoors. Damage

negligible in buildings of good design
and construction slight to moderate in
well built ordinary structures;
considerable in poorly built or badly
designed structures. Some chimneys
broken. Noticed by persons driving
1. MMI (Modified Mercalli Intensity) Scale….

VIII. Damage slight in specially designed

structures; considerable in ordinary
substantial buildings, with partial
collapse; great in poorly built structures.
Panel walls thrown out of frame
structures. Fall of chimneys, factory
stacks, columns, monuments, walls.
Heavy furniture overturned. Sand and
mud ejected in small amounts. Changes
in well water. Persons driving motor cars
disturbed.
1. MMI (Modified Mercalli Intensity) Scale….

IX. Damage considerable in specially

designed structures; well-designed
frame structures thrown out of plumb;
great in substantial buildings, with
partial collapse. Buildings shifted off
foundations. Ground cracked
conspicuously. Underground pipes
broken.
1. MMI (Modified Mercalli Intensity) Scale….

X. Some well-built wooden structures

destroyed; most masonry and frame
structures destroyed with foundations;
ground badly cracked. Rails bent.
Landslides considerable from river banks
and steep slopes. Shifted sand and mud.
Water splashed over banks.
1. MMI (Modified Mercalli Intensity) Scale….

XI. Few, if any (masonry), structures

remain standing. Bridges destroyed.
Broad fissures in ground. Underground
pipelines completely out of service. Earth
slumps and land slips in soft ground.
Rails bent greatly.

XII. Damage total. Waves seen on ground

surfaces. Lines of sight and level
distorted. Objects thrown upward into
the air.
2. MSK (Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik)
Intensity Scale
2. MSK (Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik)
Intensity Scale….
2. MSK (Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik)
Intensity Scale….
Magnitude Versus Intensity
Comparisons of Magnitude and intensity
World Great Earthquake
World Great Earthquake
World Great Earthquake
World Great Earthquake
World Great Earthquake
World Great Earthquake
World Great Earthquake
World Great Earthquake
World Great Earthquake

1960 Valdivia earthquake (Chile)

Magnitude 9.5
The world's most powerful earthquake
 About 4,485 people dead and injured
and 2 million homeless
Total loss about $550 million loss
World Great Earthquake

2004 Indian Ocean earthquake

(Indonesia)

Magnitude 9.3
The deadliest tsunami in history
was felt in 14 countries across Asia
and east Africa
2,30,000 deaths
More than 60% of their industrial
infrastructure were damaged.
World Great Earthquake

1964 Alaska earthquake (USA)

Magnitude 9.2
128 deaths
Total loss about $331 million
Damage by EQ induced landslide
and tsunami
World Great Earthquake

2011 Tōhoku earthquake (Japan)

Magnitude 9.0
15,889 deaths, 6,152 injured and
2,601 people missing
127,290 buildings totally
collapsed, with a further 272,788
buildings 'half collapsed', and
another 747,989 buildings partially
damaged
Total loss about US$14. 5 to
$34.6 billion
World Great Earthquake

1952 Kamchatka earthquakes

(Soviet Union)

Magnitude 9.0
No deaths were recorded
The tsunami that caused a million
dollars' worth of damage
Some Historic Earthquakes in Nepal

1310 BS / 1255 AD

The first recorded earthquake in

history of Nepal (June 7, 1255)
One third of the total population of
Kathmandu were killed including
Abahya Malla (the King of Kathmandu
valley)
 Many buildings and temples of the
valley were entirely destroyed
The magnitude of the earthquake is
said to be around 7.7 in Richter scale
Some Historic Earthquakes in Nepal

1316BS/ 1260 AD

Next recorded big earthquake after

1255 AD was during the reign of King
Jayadev Malla
 Many buildings and temples
collapsed and many more were
severely damaged, although the exact
number of fatalities cannot be
confirmed still 1
Some Historic Earthquakes in Nepal

1463BS/ 1408AD

Major earthquake hit the valley of

Kathmandu and the surrounding areas,
during the reign of king Shyam singh (The
month August or September of this year)
The temple of Rato Matchendranath was
completely destroyed (many other temples
and buildings collapsed and were damaged)
Cracks on land appeared in many places.
There was a heavy loss of lives and
livestock.
Some Historic Earthquakes in Nepal

1737BS/ 1681 AD

Another major earthquake said to hit Nepal

and the Kathmandu valley, King Sri Niwas
Malla (December or January) Although
very little information is available on this
particular earthquake, there was heavy loss
lives as well as many buildings including
temples were either damaged or destroyed.
Some Historic Earthquakes in Nepal

1866 BS/ 1810 AD

Another major earthquake said to hit Nepal

during of King Girban Yudha Bikram Shah
(May or June)
Although the loss in human lives and cattle
were limited, many houses, building and
some temples were either destroyed or
damaged.
 Some Historic Earthquakes in Nepal

1890 BS/ 1833 AD

During the reign King Rajendra Bikram

Shah(the months of August or September)
Houses, temples, roads network, public
shelters etc. collapsed (especially in Thimi
and Bhaktapur)
The tower of Dharahara was also severely
damaged.
About 4214 houses were collapsed within
Kathmandu Valley and in totality over 18,000
houses collapsed all over the country.
 Some Historic Earthquakes in Nepal

1990 BS/ 1934 AD

Known as Great Nepal Bihar Earthquake

struck of Nepal (January- February)
The magnitude of the earthquake was 8.4
on the Richter scale.
 Highest for any recorded earthquake in the
history of Nepal.
In total 8,519 people lost their lives in
Nepal. A total of 1,26,355 houses were
severely damaged and around 80,893
buildings were completely destroyed.
 Some Historic Earthquakes in Nepal

2037 BS/ 1980 AD

Far western region mostly affected -

Baitadi, Bajhang, Darchula
The magnitude of the earthquake was 6.4
on the Richter scale.
 About 125 people dead, 248 seriously
injured, 11,604 buildings destroyed, 13,414
buildings damaged, heavy loss of livestock
 Some Historic Earthquakes in Nepal

2045 BS/ 1988 AD

Udayapur Earthquake, Eastern

Development Region mostly affected and
some parts of Central Development region
affected (22 districts of eastern Nepal
affected)
721 deaths, 6553 people injured
About 64,174 private buildings, 468 public
houses, and 790 government buildings
damaged,
Total direct loss of 5 billion rupees
 Some Historic Earthquakes in Nepal

2050 BS/ 1993 AD

Central region and Mid Western region

affected
1 person dead, 11 injured
About 72 houses destroyed, 451 buildings
damaged
 Total loss of 48.39 million rupees
 Some Historic Earthquakes in Nepal

2051 BS/ 1994 AD

Mid Western Region affected

 Injured people 12, affected 623
About 84,287 buildings damaged
Loss of 16.35 million rupees
 Some Historic Earthquakes in Nepal

2052BS/ 1995 AD

Mid Western Region- Dailekh affected

About 18 people affected
About 4 houses destroyed
Total loss of 1.02 million rupees
 Some Historic Earthquakes in Nepal

2054 BS /1997 AD

Central region and Far Western region

mostly affected, some parts of eastern
region, and western region also affected
1 person injured, 1489 affected
About 196 houses destroyed, 60 buildings
damaged
 Total loss of 51.29 million rupees
 Some Historic Earthquakes in Nepal

2058 BS/ 2001 AD

Far Western region and some parts of

Western and Central regions affected
2 dead
About 3 houses destroyed
Total loss of 1.32 million rupees
 Some Historic Earthquakes in Nepal
2060BS/ 2003 AD

Syangja of Western Region affected, 1

dead, 2 injured

2068BS/ 2011 AD

Near the border of Nepal and the Indian

state of Sikkim
The magnitude of the earthquake was 6.9 on
the Richter scale.
5 dead, 27 injured
 Some structure damaged
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