Effective Training: Strategies,

Systems and Practices, 3rd Edition

Chapter Six
Traditional Training Methods
P. Nick Blanchard and James W. Thacker
Off-the-job Methods
 Advantages
 Variety of training techniques
 Learning climate
 Economy – number of trainees
 Don’t tie up expensive equipment/waste
 Disadvantages
 Increased costs–learning equipment/space
 Transfer issues

Chapter 6 2
Lecture
Advantages
 Economical – large amounts of information to large
numbers of trainees
 Can be organized/structured/time efficient
Criticisms
 One-way flow
 Start up costs
 Best for cognitive principles, facts rather than skills
 Stress on verbal and symbolic understanding
 Ignores individual differences

Chapter 6 3
 Typical Lecture Presentation Errors
and Ways to Avoid Them –
Part 1 of 3
Errors Ways to Avoid
Talking with back to Don’t talk and write at the same time.   Have
trainees while writing flip charts prepared ahead of time when possible.
on board or flip chart.    If considerable board work is required, use
overhead transparencies.
Using highly technical If technical words or jargon must be used, provide
words, unfamiliar definitions. Simplify the language and sentences so
jargon, or complex meaning is clear. Pilot test at least part of the
sentences. lecture with an audience similar to the trainees.
Providing examples The lecturer need not provide all the examples.
or asides without Ask trainees to provide some of the examples
much relevance to or illustrations. In preparing the lecture, go to
the trainees. the supervisors of the trainees to get examples
that are relevant.

Chapter 6 4
 Typical Lecture Presentation Errors
and Ways to Avoid Them –
Part 2 of 3
Errors Ways to Avoid
Reading rather than Prepare an outline of points to be covered
rather lecturing. than a word- for-word script. Be very familiar with
each point on the outline so that you are able to talk
about it without reference to notes.

Speaking in Listen to TV and radio commentators. Paying close

Monotone attention to when and how they change their
tone and the pitch of their voice. Practice fluctuating
the tone and pitch of your voice on tape and in
everyday conversation. Use pauses in your lecture so
you can think about how you want to say something.

Chapter 6 5
 Typical Lecture Presentation Errors
and Ways to Avoid Them –
Part 3 of 3
Errors Ways to Avoid
Making distracting Observe yourself by videotaping a lecture. If your
gestures. gestures are distracting or irritating to you, the
trainees probably feel the same way. Watch you
posture as well as your gestures. Don’t stand stiff as
a board.
Leaving projector on Get in the habit of glancing at the projection as you
with no image or an are talking about the material it displays.   When you
irrelevant image      are at the end of the material, you will see that it is
time to turn the projector off.
Losing your place in This happens most frequently because your notes are
the lecture. too detailed and you can’t find your place. One
technique is to check off topics you have completed.

Chapter 6 6
Discussion
 Advantages
 Two-way communication allows feedback,
clarification, sharing views
 Limitations
 Needs skilled discussion leader
 Time
 Trainees need common reference point
 Size of group

Chapter 6 7
 Basic Lecture/Discussion
Components and Effects on Learning
– Part 1 of 4
Learning Process
Lecture/Discussion Components Affected
1. Orientation
Presenting information so that trainees
understand the direction in which the lecture is ATTENTION
headed and the organization for getting there.

2. Enthusiasm
Presenting information in a manner that
conveys the topic’s importance and inherent ATTENTION
value.

3. Variety ATTENTION
Use of voice, gestures, various components RETENTION:
listed in this table and audiovisual aids. For Symbolic
printed lectures this is minimized. coding
Chapter 6 8
 Basic Lecture/Discussion
Components and Effects on Learning
– Part 2 of 4
Learning Process
Lecture/Discussion Components Affected

4. Logical organization RETENTION:

Presenting information in a logical order and Cognitive
providing logical transitions between topic areas. organization

5. Providing explanation RETENTION:

Describing facts, concepts and principles in a Symbolic coding
clear and easily understood manner. Cognitive
organization
6. Giving directions
RETENTION:
Providing instructions in a manner that allows
Cognitive
trainees to understand what they are to do and
organization
how to do it.
Symbolic rehearsal

Chapter 6 9
 Basic Lecture/Discussion
Components and Effects on Learning
– Part 3 of 4
Learning Process
Lecture/Discussion Components Affected

7. Illustrating
ATTENTION
Providing clear, interesting and relevant
RETENTION:
examples of how information can or has been
All areas
applied (both correctly and incorrectly).

8. Comparing and contrasting

ATTENTION,
Articulating the similarities and differences,
RETENTION:
advantages and disadvantages, etc. of relevant
Cognitive
topic areas.
organization

Chapter 6 10
 Basic Lecture/Discussion
Components and Effects on Learning
– Part 4 of 4
Learning Process
Lecture/Discussion Components Affected

9. Questioning and Discussing

ATTENTION
Seeking information from the trainees regarding
their comprehension, their content related ideas
RETENTION:
and stimulating the trainees’ thought processes
All areas
(e.g., Socratic questioning). This is not possible
in printed lectures.

10. Summarizing RETENTION:

Highlighting important concepts covered in a Cognitive
manner that links the topics/ideas together. organization

Chapter 6 11
 In-Basket Technique
 Simulation of management decision-
making
 In-basket includes various memos,
messages, etc.
 Evaluation based on prioritizing,
organizing, types of responses

Chapter 6 12
Demonstrations
 Visual display of how to do something
and how it works – can be integrated
with lecture/discussion method
 How to use effectively (See JIT)

Chapter 6 13
 Strengths and Costs of
Demonstrations
 Costs
 Control of Material and Process
 Learning Objectives
 Learning Process
 Attention
 Retention
 Behavioral reproduction

Chapter 6 14
Case Study
 Illustrations of concepts to be learned,
communication skills, analytical skills,
integrate information

 Critics-lack of realistic complexity,

caught up in details, groupthink, limits
teaching role of trainer

Chapter 6 15
Equipment Simulators
 Mechanical devices requiring the use of
the same procedures, movements and
decision processes used on the job
 Physical fidelity
 Psychological fidelity

Chapter 6 16
Business Games
 Simulations representing the way
organizations function – relate to set of
relationships, rules, and principles
 May have elements of competition
 Managerial decision making, marketing,
production management, labor
relations, etc.

Chapter 6 17
Role Playing
 Act out situation and specific events,
develop insights in own and other’s
behaviors, develop interpersonal
relationship, empathy

 Problems with over dramatization,

intimidation, realism, transfer

Chapter 6 18
 Tips for Developing and Presenting
Role Plays
Developing
• Create characters to prove your point.
• Use role playing to illustrate one key problem. Trying for more than one
topic will diffuse the impact and distract the learners.
Presenting
• Take the time to introduce the situation. Give trainees enough background
to understand what’s at stake.
• Make sure participants understand your instructions.
• If the role play gets off topic, stop the performance and ask, “What are the
problems here? Why isn’t the conversation moving in the right direction?”
• After the performance, discuss what happened. Most learning occurs at this
discussion.
Chapter 6 19
Behavior Modeling
 Observe complex behavior, discuss,
practice through role playing and
feedback
 Best if can identify with role models
 Research support

Chapter 6 20
 Things to Consider for Implementing
Behavior Modeling – Part 1 of 2

•  Carefully select the trainer/program administrator who will set up and conduct the
sessions. He or she must be skilled and experienced with this technique.

• Consider if this technique will meet your needs within constraints of time and money.

•  Identify real skill deficiencies in advance of training and involve the potential trainees
and their bosses in this process.

•  Break the skills into small behaviors. Build a module around each small behavior.

• Do not emphasize more than seven learning points during any one training module.

• Models used to demonstrate the correct way of behaving/handling a certain situation

should have sufficient status to be credible yet easy for the trainees to identify with.

• Using a videotape of a model performing the correct behavior ensures that all groups
of trainees will see a positive example and may reduce costs since it is reusable.
Chapter 6 21
 Things to Consider for Implementing
Behavior Modeling – Part 2 of 2

• Before trainees actually practice the desired behavior, have them verbalize the
behavioral cues demonstrated and then have them visualize their performance.

•  A supportive climate that encourages experimentation must be established for the

practice sessions. Emphasis on positive reinforcement rather than criticism increases
self-confidence and learning.

•  After each session, some behavior modeling experts provide a wallet-sized card that
outlines the key learning points and critical steps. This acts as a security blanket.

•  Conduct a review session after several modules have been completed in order to
reinforce the learning points and to demonstrate the progress that has been attained.

•  Manage the consequences of attempting the newly trained behaviors in the actual job
situation.

Chapter 6 22
Audiovisual Methods
 Static and dynamic media.
telecommunication
 Portray dynamic and complex events
 Illustration of principles
 Stop action, slow motion
 Exposure to events not easily found live
 Organization wide distribution

Chapter 6 23
 Audiovisual Aid – Part 1 of 2
Audiovisual Aid Advantages Disadvantages
Charts/Poster Ability to develop lists Difficult to view from a
    with trainees enhances distance; bulky to
S      group interaction; can  transport
     post and refer to during
T      training; use in lighted room
A
Overheads Able to overlay systems, Can be distracting
T flowcharts, etc.; easy to projector can block
I        use can see from a view
distance; use in lighted
C room
Computer-Generated Able to develop flashy visual Flashy presentation could
    Overheads      aids; use of color and control distract from training;
     of points (one presented at a rely heavily technology
on time); easily modified;
easily controlled

Chapter 6 24
 Audiovisual Aid – Part 2 of 2
Audiovisual Aid Advantages Disadvantages
Audiotapes Can learn at any time (even Single sensory input,     
traveling to work); reusable no interaction
D Film and Video Can demonstrate appropriate High material cost; very
     behavior; good for receiving high development
Y      personal feedback; can cost; need to dim
     present and integrate lights; store-bought
N
     conceptual information; not specific to company
A      some commercially available
are reasonably priced and
M appropriate.

I
Computer Can be very flashy; use of Same as computer-
C Generated color and sound provide      generated overheads
Presentation different stimuli for obtaining
     interest

Chapter 6 25
 Guidelines for Producing
Transparencies

For each transparency:

• Present one idea or concept

• Print in large letters (1/4–1/2 inch type, larger if by hand)

• 6 or 7 lines with 6 to 8 words per line

• Use color for impact

Chapter 6 26
 Points to Consider in Creating a
Story for a Video – Part 1 of 2
Have one main character
• must be realistic (not perfect)
• have a problem, but otherwise successful
The problem
• character has a major problem
• can be personal struggle in his mind, or an actual problem with
another employee
• must build tension with this problem, character should come
close to disaster (e.g., threaten to fire her)
Intervention/insight: character gains insight from
mentor: Obi Wan Kenobi in Star Wars
dream: Ghosts in A Christmas Carol

Chapter 6 27
 Points to Consider in Creating a
Story for a Video – Part 2 of 2
Too much story/too little story
• the general consensus is that if the story introduces too much extraneous
material and too many actors, the points get lost
• the other extreme is not enough story so trainees do not really understand
why things are happening. Solid storyboarding will assist in preventing this.

Use of humor
• humor can actually assist recall. For this reason, if you use humor, make
sure the humor comes from the learning points. This way when trainees
recall the joke they recall the learning point.

Learn from others

• examine video developed by professional

Chapter 6 28
On-the-job Methods
 Advantages
 No special space or equipment
 Minimize transfer problems/practice what
will be doing
 Earn/produce while learning
 Relevant reinforcements
 Learning environment same as working
environment

Chapter 6 29
On-the-job Methods
 Disadvantages
 Tie up expensive equipment
 Waste may be high
 Customer problems
 “Trainer” may not be skilled
 Pressure of job demands

Chapter 6 30
On-the-job Methods
 Job instruction technique
 Apprenticeship
 Coaching
 Mentoring
 Internship

Chapter 6 31
 Basic Demonstration Components
and Their Effects on Learning
DEMONSTRATION COMPONENTS AREAS OF LEANING AFFECTED

PRESENT
 Tell Attention, Symbolic Coding and
 Demonstrate Cognitive Organization
 Explain

 TRY OUT
Symbolic Rehearsal and
 Learner talks through the task
Behavioral Reproduction
 Learner does task and describes
what they are doing and why
 Trainer provides positive/negative
feedback
 Learner practices

Chapter 6 32
 JIT Instruction/Learning Sequence
– Part 1 of 3
BASICS OF INSTRUCTION AREAS OF LEARNING
AFFECTED1
PREPARE Attention and motivation
• Break down the job.
• Prepare an instruction plan.
• Put the learner at ease.

 PRESENT  
• Tell. Symbolic Coding
• Show.  
• Demonstrate. Cognitive Organization
• Explain.

Chapter 6 33
 JIT Instruction/Learning Sequence
– Part 2 of 3
BASICS OF INSTRUCTION AREAS OF LEARNING
AFFECTED1
 TRY OUT
• Have the learner “talk Symbolic Rehearsal
through” the job.
• Have the learner instruct
the supervisor on how the
job is done.
• Let the learner do the job. Behavioral Reproduction
• Provide feedback, both
positive and negative.
• Let the learner practice

Chapter 6 34
 JIT Instruction/Learning Sequence
– Part 3 of 3
BASICS OF INSTRUCTION AREAS OF LEARNING
AFFECTED1
FOLLOW UP
• Check progress frequently Behavioral Reproduction
at first.
• Tell the learner whom to go
to for help.
• Gradually taper off progress
checks.

Chapter 6 35
 Job Breakdown Sheet for OJT –
Part 1 of 4

Dept: Metal Decorating Prepared by J. Smith

Job: Feeder Pressman Date: June 8
Tools/Equipment
Main Steps Key Points Material Safety Factors
Part I
(Start of shift)

1. Check level of Ask pressman which All solutions kept in Do not spill on
   fountain solution     solution to use.     metal containers     walkway
   and refill if     Scratch mark     in storeroom
   necessary     shows minimum
     and maximum
     capacities

Chapter 6 36
 Job Breakdown Sheet for OJT –
Part 2 of 4

Tools/Equipment
Main Steps Key Points Material Safety Factors
Part I
(Start of shift)

2. Check level of Check card for type of Same as #1 Very volatile and
   varnish in wet     material being     flammable
   varnish machine     used and deter-
   and refill if     mine amount of
   necessary     thinner necessary
     to obtain proper
     viscosity

3. Wash sponges, Use same thinner as Same as #1 Do not wash in

   bucket, and gum     in #2      enclosed area
   containers      because of fumes

Chapter 6 37
 Job Breakdown Sheet for OJT –
Part 3 of 4

Tools/Equipment
Main Steps Key Points Material Safety Factors
Part II
(Start a new bundle in press)

1. Request lift driver Do not wait until

   to bring over new     bundle on press is
   bundle      almost finished

2. Check new bundle Pull the job ticket Leather-palmed gloves Always wear gloves
   to be sure it is the     and check order when handling
   correct one and is     number; examine sheets to prevent
   in good condition      top sheets and cuts
     sides and
     corners of bundle

Chapter 6 38
 Job Breakdown Sheet for OJT –
Part 4 of 4

Tools/Equipment
Main Steps Key Points Material Safety Factors
Part III
(Whenever press is stopped)

1. Lower elevator Lower only until top Leather-palmed Wear gloves

   with bundle on it     of bundle is at a gloves   
and cover with     convenient height
   master sheet

2. Unless otherwise Be sure entire plate Use sponges and Be sure press is clear
   instructed by     is wet; dry spots      clear water   before wetting plate
pressman, wet can oxidize and
   plate on front unit   damage plate            

Chapter 6 39
 Steps to Follow for Better OJT –
Part 1 of 2
1. Establish policy.
Prepare a written description that puts the organization “on the record” as
supporting structured OJT.
2. Establish accountability.
Make clear who is primarily responsible for OJT. Write it into their job
descriptions..
3. Review precedents.
Find out what other organizations in your industry are doing about
structured OJT. Use this information in efforts to design your program.

4. Design & routinely give training on the principles of structured OJT.

Supervisors and experienced workers are the most likely ones to conduct
structured OJT in the workplace. They will need training

Chapter 6 40
 Steps to Follow for Better OJT –
Part 2 of 2
5. Provide specialized support for line managers who use structured OJT.
Certain jobs are common entry points for employees. For these jobs, design
“off-the-shelf” lesson plans, job aids, individualized learning contracts, and
individualized training progress report forms for those jobs.
6. Avoid turf battles.
Begin efforts to improve OJT on a small scale, in work units where
supervisors or managers are supportive.
7. Consider literacy skills.
Do not assume that employees—or, for that matter, supervisors—are
highly literate. Use efforts to improve OJT to assess performance
problems that can be traced to literacy issues.

Chapter 6 41
Apprenticeship Training
 Skilled trades as well as professions
 Often mixed OJT and classroom
activities

Chapter 6 42
Definition of Coaching
 Face to face interactions designed to
eliminate undesired behavior and
begin/maintain desired behavior
 Day to day – related to leadership,
teaching, mentoring, counseling,
confronting

Chapter 6 43
Coaching to Improve
Performance
 Definition of poor performance
 Responding to poor performance
 Multiple causes
 Attribution
 Internal – abilities/motivation
 External – chance/difficulty

Chapter 6 44
Diagnosing Reasons for
Performance Problems
Resources
Information and Tools Motivation

Expectations & Resources & Incentives

Environ
Feedback Tools
-ment

Skills & Capacity Motives

Person
Knowledge

Chapter 6 45
 Assessment of Need for Coaching
Question Response
Are there obstacles in the system Yes Remove obstacles or revise
preventing effective performance? expectations

Do negative consequences follow Yes Change the consequences

good performance?
Do positive consequences follow Yes Change the consequences
poor performance?
Is the employee aware that No Provide proper feedback
improvement is expected?

Does the employee know how to No Train or coach

improve?
Could the employee improve Yes Coach
performance if he wanted to?

Chapter 6 46
Coaching Discussion
 1. Get agreement problem exists.
 2. Mutually discuss alternative solutions.
 3. Mutually agree on action to be taken.
 4. Follow up to measure results.
 5. Recognize any achievement that
occurs.

Chapter 6 47
Mentoring
 Often involves a senior member of the
organization and a junior manager
 Proven to be effective
 Some organizations moving to more
formalized mentoring programs

Chapter 6 48