Centrifugal Compressors

By
Ghulam Sarwar Feroze
 Contents

 Compression
 Classification of Compressors
 Centrifugal Compressors
 Inter-relation between system & Compressor
 Compressor Operating Limits
 Operational Problems
 Applicable Gas Laws
 Thermodynamics Principles
 Compression

 Molecules are always travel at high speed, they strike

against walls of enclosed vessel and produce pressure.

 Temperature affects average molecules speed. When

heat is added in fixed volume of gas, the molecule
travel faster, and hit the containing walls of vessel
more often and with greater force.

 If the enclosed vessel is fitted with a piston so that the

gas can squeezed into smaller space, the molecule
travel is now restricted and pressure increased.
 Compression

 Compression is used to move gases from one place to

another place. Following machines are used.

 Compressors
 Move air or gas in higher differential pressure ranges from 35
psi to as high as 65,000 psi in extreme cases.
 Blowers
 Move large volume of air or gas at pressure up to 50 psi.
 Fans
 Move air or gas at a sufficient pressure to overcome static
forces. Discharge pressure range from a few inches of water to
about 1 psi.
 Purpose of Compression

 In chemical process industry some reaction take place

at certain pressure and temperature condition.

 The compression of gases for liquefying them for

storage purpose.

 The compression and subsequent expansion of gases

for the purpose of cooling.

 Pressurized air is used for measuring and control

system.
Confined Gas before and after heating
Volume Reduces and pressure
Increases
 Compressors

 A compressor is a device used to increase the pressure

of a compressible fluid.
 The inlet pressure level can be a deep vacuum to a high
positive pressure.
 The discharge pressure ranges from sub-atmospheric
level to thousands of psi.
 The fluid can be either gas or vapor and have the wide
molecular weight range from H2 to uranium
hexafluoride.
 Applications vary form home refrigerator to large
complex petrochemical plants.
 Methods of Compression

 Trap quantities of gas, reduce the volume, push the

compressed gas out of the enclosure.

 Trap gas, carry it without volume change to the discharge

opening. Compress the gas by backflow from discharge
system, then push the compressed gas out of the enclosure

 Compress by the mechanical action rotating impellers or

bladed rotors that impart velocity and pressure

 Entrain the gas in a high velocity jet of the same or

another gas and convert the high velocity of the mixture
into pressure in a diffuser.
 Compressors Classification

Compressors can be subdivided into two broad groups

based on compression mode.

 Intermittent
 This compression is cyclic in nature. A specific quantity
of gas is ingested by the compressor, acted upon and
discharged, before the cycle is repeated.

 Continuous
 The compression mode in which gas is moved into the
compressor, acted upon, moved through compressor, and
discharged without interruption of the flow at any point
in the process.
 Compressors Classification

Compressors using the intermittent mode are referred as

Positive Displacement Compressors and their distinct
types are

 Reciprocating ( Single & Double acting )

• compress gas to very high pressure at low flow rate
 Rotary ( Helical & Spiral-lobe )

Continuous mode compressors are characterized by two

fundamental types
 Dynamic

 Ejector
 Dynamic Compressors

The dynamic compressors are further divided into three

categories, based primarily on the direction of flow through the
machine.
 Radial Flow
 Centrifugal Compressors ( widely used compressor )
 Axial Flow
 Compressors move fluid in a flow path that is mainly parallel
to the axis of shaft rotation. The rows of blades continuously
add energy to the gas. The pressure increase in these
compressors is relatively low, but flow rate is very high.
 Mixed Flow
 It is relatively uncommon form. A bladed impeller is used, but
the flow path is angular in direction to the rotor; that is, it has
both radial and axial components.
Centrifugal Compressor
Application of Compressors-NP
 Centrifugal Compressors

 A compressor that uses centrifugal tendency to impart

pressure and velocity to a gas. The tendency of gas to
move outward from centre of rotating impeller is
centrifugal tendency.

 Ranges in volumetric size from approximately 1,000 to

150,000 cfm.

 Produce a higher flow rate than reciprocating

compressors and higher pressure ratio compared to
axial compressors.
 Advantages

In general Centrifugal Compressors have these

characteristics.
 Discharge flow is relatively free of pulsation.
 Mechanical design permits high throughputs, capacity
limitation is rarely a problem.
 Centrifugal Compressors are capable of efficient
performance over a wide range of pressure and
capacities even at constant speed operation.
 These are relatively small, occupy less space, operate
with minimum attention and quieter.
 Less contamination due to lubricants.
 Disadvantages

 Less efficient for small volumes.

 Discharge pressure limitation.

 Effect of gas density and temperature.

 Problem of surge phenomenon.

 Working Principle

The working principle is based upon the

conversion of dynamic energy into
static energy, i.e., from velocity into
pressure.

The specific compression energy

transmitted to the gas by the rotor is
called "head."

The discharge pressure of a turbo

compressor, which is affected by gas
inlet conditions, is a function of head.
 Casings Type

Horizontal Split (MCL) Vertical Split (BCL)

All internals are easily Internal components have to

accessible on removing top pull along with cover removal
half of the casing. to access all parts.

The joints through which gas The joints where gas can
can escape is of larger area. escape are at end of casing and
have smaller area.

High pressure has more High pressure has less contact

contact with joint. with joint.
Suitable for low pressures Suitable for high pressures
Main Components of Centrifugal Compressor
Main Components of Centrifugal Compressor

Impeller
The part of centrifugal compressor that moves the gas is the
impeller. As the impeller rotates, it moves the gas toward the
outer rim of the impeller and its velocity increases.

- Open impeller is used for high heads and small to large flow in
single stage compressors only.
- Semi-enclosed impeller is used for large flow, usually in single
stage compressors or as first stage of multistage compressors.
- Enclosed impeller is used in multistage compressors.
Shaft
It transmits power to impellers and hold them in position.
Main Components of Centrifugal Compressor

Rotor
It consists of a shaft on which impeller and spacers are
installed. The spacers position the impellers suitably and
protect the shaft sections, not covered by impellers, to avoid
contact with gas.

Diaphragms
A multistage centrifugal compressor contains diaphragms
(stationary part). The adjacent walls of diaphragms form a
passage called diffuser. Inside the diaphragms are channels
(return passages) which return the gas to suction side of next
impeller.
Main Components of Centrifugal Compressor

Diffuser
As the gas leaves impeller, it flows into a passage-way
called the diffuser. The diffuser being larger in volume,
the velocity of gas decreases and its pressure increases.

Guide Vanes
Guide vanes are designed to guide the flow of gas
efficiently into the eye of impeller. Compressor capacity
can be controlled by adjusting guide vanes.
Main Components of Centrifugal Compressor
Bearings
Bearings are used to support the shaft with a minimum of friction.
Bearings permit shaft to rotate freely, but they prevent axial and
radial motion.
Journal Bearings
Tilting pad bearings with forced lubrication are used to prevent
radial motion. The pads can swing inside the housing, both in the
direction of movement and in axial direction for maximum
dampening of rotating shaft vibration.
Thrust Bearings
Tilting pad equalizing type bearings at the shaft end supports the
residual axial thrust. These have number of thrust segments or
shoes on each side of the collar. The thrust of rotating element is
transmitted through thrust collar to the shoes, by the shoes to shoe
supporting elements and then to the stationary housing &
foundation.
Main Components of Centrifugal Compressor

Balancing Drum
- The rotor is subjected to an axial thrust towards suction end
due to differential pressure generated on two faces of impeller.

- When axial thrust is too great for thrust bearing, then it is

balanced by a balance drum fitted on the end of shaft adjacent
to the last stage impeller.

- The size of drum is such that axial thrust is considerably

reduced, the remaining thrust absorbed by thrust bearing. It
ensures that rotor cannot move in an axial direction.

- With back to back impellers, balancing drum is arranged

between discharge sides of two stages.
Balancing Arrangement
Thrust Balance Arrangement
Main Components of Centrifugal Compressor

Labyrinth Seal
- These seals operate with positive clearance and provide sealing by
virtue of a lengthy, tortuous gap path. Therefore, sealing depends on
the form of labyrinth gap and length of leakage path.

- Teeth are made of soft material so that shaft would not damage on
incidental contact.

- As gas enters space between teeth, it slows down and changes

direction. The resulting turbulence resists the flow of gas.

- Labyrinths do not prevent all leakage and are used in areas where it
is acceptable to allow leakage.

- These are widely used as inter stage seals because pressure difference
between stages is normally low.
 Main Components of Centrifugal Compressor

 Liquid Film Shaft Seals

- This type is used for sealing pressures of up to 10000 PSI.
- There is no direct contact between stationary and moving parts.
Consequently, very little friction and almost no wear of the sleeve.
- Provides perfect sealing against leakage. The seals do require a
continuous supply of clean oil at high pressure.

 Dry Gas Seal (Tandem)

- Works on principle of balancing of aerostatic and aerodynamic forces
to provide a stable, minimal running clearance.
- The forces exerted on seal are aerostatic when pressure is applied either
in stationary or rotating state.
- Aerostatic forces generated only upon rotation.
- Spiral grooves play a vital role by generating a separating force which
provide acceptable sealing gap.
 Comparison of Oil & Dry Gas Seals

Area Oil Seal (P-1) DGS (P-2)

Seal Oil Accessories Pump, oil reservoir, Gas filter and simple
vessel, traps, filters, instruments
control valves, Instt.
Seal Oil Consumption 24000 lit/year for -
K-431/441
Power Consumption 100 KWH -

Gas Leakage / Seal 20-25 NMC/hr 10-20 NMC/hr

Contamination Oil and product -

Ammonia
Maintenance Frequency Moderate Low

Seal Cost Low High

 Comparison of Oil & Dry Gas Seals

Area Oil Seal (P-1) DGS (P-2)

Vendor Dependability - High

Shutdowns Moderate Low

Buffer Gas ( N2 ) - Moderate ( N2 supply is

Consumption essential)
Monitoring High Low
Requirement
Sealing Medium Quality Less stringent More stringent

Start up Time consuming Quick ( Care must be

practiced regarding
condensate and thermal
shocks )
 Equipment Interaction

The compressor is taking suction from a source, point A at pressure P1, and

discharging at pressure P2 at point B into a process system consisting of

pipelines, valves and equipment. The gas is transported through this system to be

delivered to point C at pressure P3. The line pressure drop, (P2-P3), is usually

denoted as  P of the system.

 Compressor Curve

The flow Q, Head, P, and

speed N relationship of a
centrifugal compressor . It
can be seen that pressure
increase as the flow drop
till reaches the surge line.
Similarly if the flow
increase it reaches the
stone wall limit for the
particular speed.
 Relationship between
Compressor and System Curves.
 Single-speed Compressor

Simple arrangement of a centrifugal single-speed compressor drive with

suction / discharge pressure control
 Incoming Flow to
Compressor Decreases
 Suction pressure
reduces

 Discharge control
valve closes

 System curve moves

to left with new
operating point.
 Incoming Flow Drops
Below Surge Control Point
 Discharge control
valve closes

 Anti surge valve

opens

 New system curve

and operating point
is located
 Gas Demand Increase at the
Consumer End
 Flow increases

 System curve
shift to left

 Pressure drop
increase
Variable-speed Compressor Drive With
Speed Controller
The speed is changed by a variable-speed driver to achieve varying flow-

pressure requirements. The driver is often a gas or steam turbine, although

variable-speed electric motors are also used in certain cases.

Compressor Delivers at a Fixed Pressure to
Consumer, Set Pressure Changed

 Static pressure
moves down
 Flow increases
 Suction
pressure drops
 Speed reduced
 Gas Molecular Weight Changes

 Molecular weight decrease

pressure decrease

 Increase speed

 If on margin new curve will

be formed and flow reduces.

 Increases suction pressure

 Molecular weight increase,

pressure increase

 Flow increases new curve

will be formed

 If gas is not available

 Speed reduces
 Conclusion

Compressor like a centrifugal pump can be operated anywhere on

its curve between surge point (or surge control line, SCL) and
stonewall by shifting the system curve, provided the driver is
adequately sized.

However, if the increase is due to a change in MW where the

compressor curve itself shifts, this should be limited to the
specified MW variation range.
 Compressor Surge
 Compressor surge is an unstable flow pattern in a compressor where the total
flow across the airfoil alternately stops, flows backwards, and then flows
forward. 
 The surge flow has been defined as the flow at which the head flow curve is
perfectly flat and below which the head actually decrease.
 Surging

The smaller the angle the longer

is the flow path of the gas
between impeller tip and the
diffuser outer diameter.

when the path becomes long

enough that flow momentum is
dissipated by the friction  to the
point where pressure gained by
diffusion causes a reversal of
flow surge results.  
 Control Parameters

 Surge prevention

 Suction flow / discharge flow.

 Discharge pressure.

 Vibration.

 Lube oil pressure and flow through bearings.

 Bearing temperatures.

 Inter stage pressure and temperature.

 Fouling
 Mechanical Conditions

The most critical components of a compressor are the rotor, its

bearings and seals. Monitoring of mechanical compressor
functions, therefore, will center around the behavior of these
components. The following data allow assessment of the
mechanical condition:

1. Radial vibration
2. Shaft position
3. Bearing temperature
4. Lube-oil supply pressure and temperature
5. Seal-oil supply temperature, and differential pressure between oil
supply and reference gas
6. Seal buffer-gas pressures and differential pressures
7. Compressor speed (with variable speed driver)
 Problems

 Dirty Intercoolers
Increased gas temperature reduces the density into the
compression stage resulting in reduced stage ratio and reduced
rise to surge.
 Dirty Inlet Filter
Reduces the pressure into the first stage, this results in a lower
natural surge point. A lower natural surge point reduces the
throttle range.
 Hot Coolant
Increased gas temperature reduces the gas density into the
compression stage resulting in reduced stage ratio and reduced
rise to surge.
 Problems

 Hot Inlet Gas

Increased air temperature to the first stage reduces the gas
density into that stage resulting in reduced stage ratio. Since
pressure is multiplied as the gas moves through a multistage
compressor, the first stage has the most dramatic affect on rise
to surge.
Driver Input Speed
The ability  for a centrifugal compressor stage to make
pressure falls as the square of the stage speed. A reduction in
the driver input speed can dramatically affect the total
machine ratio and therefore the rise to surge.
 
 Problems

 Discharge valve closure

Discharge valve closure decreased the flow through
the compressor hence increase the pressure and
causes surging
 Suction valve closure
Suction valve closure or suction vent opening
causes pressure drop in suction reducing flow and
surging the machine
 Problems

 Interstage vent malfunction- In a multistage

compressor if inter stage vent valve malfunction
and opens the down stream stage will surge.
 Change in gas composition. If the gas composition
change it effects the head thus the compressor can
go into surge at the same speed.
 Recycle valve malfunction.  Recycle valves are
normally open during reduced flow operation. if
closes by accident or malfunction it will surge the
compressor. 
 Conclusion

 Cfm depend upon diameter of impeller and speed.

 Higher mach number (gas velocity at any point/

velocity of sound) cause choke.

 Impeller and diffuser geometry control stability of a

compressor.

 Heavy gases tends to surge and choke.

 Gas Laws

 Boyle’s Law
 Charles’ Law
 Amonton’s Law
 Dalton’s law
 Amagat’s Law
 Avogadro’s Law
 Ideal Gas Equation
 Gas Laws

Boyle’s Law
Pressure is inversely proportional to their volume at
constant temperature.
PV = Constant

Charles Law
At low pressure the volume of a gas is proportional to
its temperature.
V / T = Constant
 Gas Laws

 Dalton’s law
Total pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is equal to the sum of
partial pressure of the constituent gases
Partial pressure is the pressure each gas will exert if it alone
occupied the volume of the mixture at the mixture temperature
P=pa+pb+pc+pd+…..

 Amonton’s Law
At constant volume, the pressure of an ideal gas varies directly
with absolute temperature

P2/P1= T2/T1 V= constant  

 Gas Laws

 Amagat’s Law
Total volume of a mixture of ideal gases is equal to the sum of
partial volume of the constituent gases
Partial volume is the volume each gas will occupy if it alone is
under same pressure temperature condition of mixture
V=va+vb+vc+vd+…..

 Avogadro’s Law
Avogadro’ states that equal volumes of all gases, under the same
conditions of pressure and temperature, contain the same number
of molecules.
 Gas and vapor

 Gas is a state of matter above its Critical Condition and can’t be

liquefy by applying pressure.

 A substance in gaseous form below its Critical Condition.

 All gases can be liquefied under specific temperature and pressure

conditions there for they can also be called as vapor.
 Critical Conditions

 There is one temperature above which a gas will not liquefy with
pressure increase is critical temperature.

 The pressure require to compress and condense a gas at this

critical temperature is critical pressure.

 Critical Condition of Water.

Tcr = 374.14°C
Pcr = 220.48 bar, 3206 lb/inch2
Vcr = 0.003155 m3/kg
 Ideal Gas Equations

 Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature and specific

volume of a substance is called an equation of state. There are
several equations, some simple and others very complex.

 The simplest and best known equation of state for substances in

the gas phase is ideal – gas equation.

 This equation predicts the P-V-T behavior of gas quit accurately

with in some properly selected region.

 P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2

 PV = RT
Deviation from Ideal – Gas Behavior

 Practically it was observed that gases follow the ideal gas

behavior under certain conditions.

At low pressure

At high temperature.
Low density gasses
 Compressibility

 Gases deviate from ideal – gas behavior significantly at states near

the saturation region and the critical point:
 This deviation from ideal-gas behavior at a given temperature and
pressure can accurately be accounted for by the introduction of
correction factor called the compressibility factor “ Z”.

 PV = ZRT
 Z = PV/RT
 Z = Vactual / Videal
For Ideal Gas Z=1
For real Gas Z = >1 or < 1

(The farther away “Z” is from unity, the more the gas deviates from ideal –
gas behavior)
 Reduced Pressure & Temperature

 Gases behave differently at given temperature and pressure, but

they behave very much the same at temperature and pressure
normalized with respect to their critical temperature and
pressures.
PR = P/Pcr

TR = T/Tcr
Where,
PR = Reduced Pressure
TR = Reduced temperature
Generalized Compressibility Chart.
 Observation of Generalized
Compressibility Chart.

 At very low pressure (PR << 1), the gases behavior as an ideal gas
regardless of temperature.

 At high temperature (TR > 2), ideal gas behavior can be assumed
with good accuracy regardless of pressure (except when PR >> 1)

 The deviation of a gas from ideal – gas behavior is greatest in the

vicinity of critical point.
Application of Partial pressure in case
of compression
 Partial pressure is used to determine the moisture removed in
intercooler and after cooler.

 The practical application of partial pressure in compression

problem is the determination of mixture volume or weight to be
handled at the intake of the each stage of compression.

 The determination of molecular weight, specific gravity, and the

actual or proportional weight of the components.
Temperature rise due to compression
 Compression Terms

 Compression ratio
is the ratio of absolute discharge pressure (psia) and absolute inlet
pressure (14.7).
Thus, a compressor operating at sea level on plant air service with
100 psi discharge pressure would have compression ratio of 7.8.

 Adiabatic compression
occurs when no heat is transferred to or from the gas during
compression.

 Isothermal compression
occurs when temperature of the gas remains constant during
compression.
 Compressor Thermodynamics

 To increase the pressure of the gas as it flows from suction end to

the discharge end of compressor.
 Accomplished by bladed impellers that convert mechanical
energy of rotating shaft into energy in the gas.
 Losses during compression absorb part of the work, reducing the
work converted into useful energy.
 Fluid dynamic losses include friction between gas and internal
surfaces of compressor, internal recycling, heat exchange and
mechanical losses.
 The amount of losses that occur within a centrifugal compressor
determines its efficiency and defines its effective service.
 Thermodynamics includes the concepts and laws describing
conversion of energy from one form to another and interrelation
between these forms of energy. It focuses on how mechanical
energy is converted into gas energy.
 Thermodynamic condition

A compressor's efficiency is reflected by its thermodynamic

performance. Evaluation of performance requires acquisition of
the following data.

 Suction and discharge pressures of each stage

 Suction and discharge. temperatures of each stage
 Volume flow
 Density
 Operating speed
 Power consumption
 Cooling water Flow rate,
 Fouling
 Compressor Thermodynamics

 Thermodynamics is the science of relations between

heat and other ( mechanical, electrical etc) forms of
energy.
 The thermodynamic theory of compressors is divided
into two subjects:
 Gas Flow illustrates the path that gas travels within the
compressor, from suction to discharge.
 Theory of Gas Compression describes how gas
pressure is increased through compression stage or
stages of the compressor
 Gas Flow
 Gas flow enters inlet volute of the compressor through suction
nozzle. The volute ensures uniform distribution of gas around eye
of the impeller. Fin at volute reduces gas turbulence and prevents
recirculation within volute itself.
 Gas is then drawn into eye of impeller and is discharged radially at
a higher pressure, temperature and velocity from tip of impeller.
 Impeller contains blades that convert mechanical energy of the
shaft into gas velocity. This energy can be measured in terms of
pressure, temperature and velocity.
 The high velocity gas flows from impeller into stationary
components i.e. diffuser where part of gas velocity is reduced.
 Following the diffuser is a return channel that brings the gas to
the eye of next impeller.
 Upon leaving last diffuser, gas flows into discharge volute and is
directed toward discharge nozzle.
 Discharge volute contain fins that reduces gas turbulence and
prevents gas from continuing to flow around volute.
 Molecular Weight
Molecular weight is sum of atomic weights of all elements making up a gas
 State

An equation of state links together pressure, temperature and specific volume

to represent the behaviour of gas; used to calculate efficiency, head, enthalpy
and entropy.
 Stage

 Stage refers to the area of compression within a compressor.

 A compressor can be either single or multistage

 A single stage compressor consists of an impeller and its diffuser.

 A multistage compressor has two or more impellers each with a

diffuser operating in series. The diaphragms create the diffuser
and return channel to eye of next impeller.

The return channel brings the gas flow from discharge of one
stage to inlet of next stage.
Single Stage Centrifugal compressor
Multistage Centrifugal Compressor
Multistage Centrifugal Compressor
 Pressure Ratio

Pressure ratio is
discharge pressure
of the compressor
divided by suction
pressure.
Pressure ratio is
defined using
absolute pressure.
Inter-cooling is used
when R is equal to
or greater than 3 in
multistage
compressors.
 Compression Section

 It refers to the area of compression between two consecutive

nozzles.

 Single-section design is used when one compression section

meets all design requirements.

 A multistage section design is used when the process requires

side flows, when the absorbed power must be reduced with
intermediate cooling, or when the discharge temperature for a
single section would be too high and intermediate cooling is
required.
 Absolute Pressure

Force exerted per unit area is pressure.

 Mass Flow

The flow of gas through compressor expressed in units of

mass per unit time. Mass flow and pressure ratio, together
with efficiency, determine the power used for compression.
 Volume Flow

It determines the compressor,s dimensions. The inlet temperature

and pressure determines the gas volume for a given mass
quantity. If the temperature increases and pressure remains
constant, then the volume will increase. If the pressure increases
and temperature remains constant, then the volume will
decrease.
 Compression Process

In the process of gas compression, the molecules of gas are

forced closer to each other. Thus, volume required to contain gas
decrease with the effect of an increase in gas pressure. This
compression process can be achieved using mechanical work
provided externally.
 Compression Process

 As the pressure is increased, the molecular resistance to the

reduction in distance between molecules causes the temperature to
increase. The final result is an incremental increase in gas energy.

 In a centrifugal compressor, energy in the form of torque is

applied to a rotating shaft. Attached to the shaft are impellers that
convert this mechanical energy into an increase in energy of gas.

 The increased energy in a gas is defined by the characteristics of

pressure, temperature and velocity. These three characteristics are
used to determine a quantity known as enthalpy.
 Enthalpy

The total thermodynamic heat contents of a system. Enthalpy

depends only on the condition of the fluid and measurement of
the energy content of the gas. Thermodynamic properties of
gas are static or total. The difference between two is that total
condition includes energy content generated by gas velocity.
 Power

In many applications, compressor mass flow

remains constant from inlet to discharge.
Therefore, actual compressor power is calculated
by multiplying the mass flow by difference in
enthalpy between inlet and discharge.
 Actual Work

Actual work performed by compressor can be evaluated by

measuring total P and at suction and discharge of a compressor,
subjected that gas composition is known.
The amount of work required to compress gas can be determined
if enthalpy of the gas is calculated, The work to compress a unit
mass of gas is defined as the enthalpy value of compressor
discharge minus enthalpy of the compressor`s suction.

h = U + pv
 Efficiency

The efficiency of a compressor design is calculated by comparing the

work required t perform an actual gas compression to the work required
to perform an ideal gas compression at the same pressure ratio.
Entropy is a measure of the un-availability of a system’s thermal energy
for conversion into mechanical work.

(Isentropic)
 Entropy - Temperature
The representation on an entropy-temperature
diagram is particularly useful because, of a given
adiabatic compression from P1T1 to P2T2, the
area 2ABC underneath the curve at constant
discharge pressure represents the actual work
needed to perform the compression itself.
 First Law of Thermodynamics

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, although it may

be changed from one form to another.

Qh – Wt = ∆E
Where,
Qh = heat supplied to a system
Wt = Work done by the system
∆E = Change in energy of system
 Second Law of Thermodynamics

Heat will not flow, in itself, from cold to hot. For a

reversible process, entropy (s) can be defined as

ds = dQh / T
It is recognized that a truly reversible process does not
exist in the real world and real processes result in an
increase in entropy.
 Adiabtic Process
The first law of thermodynamics is heat exchanged minus work
equals the enthalpy variation.
When compression occurs without heat transfer, as is basically the
case with centrifugal compressors, it is called adiabatic.
Consequently, because the heat is zero, the enthalpy variation
equals the work performed.
 Isentropic Work

By referring to isentropic work on graph, additional work is needed in

the actual process to achieve the same compression ratio as in the
ideal process. The additional work needed is due to losses in the
compression process.
 Isentropic Transformation

If the process is adiabatic and without losses, it represents an

ideal case. This is isentropic process. This transformation can
be represented by the formula pressure multiplied by specific
volume to the power K equals constant where K is isentropic
index considering constant along the isentropic path.
 Adiabatic Efficiency
The ratio between the isentropic work and the actual work is defined
as adiabatic efficiency. For actual transformation there are losses
during compression. These losses occur in the form of heat caused
by friction etc. The losses increase the actual work needed to
perform same compression ratio as in ideal transformation, and
outlet temperature in comparison to isentropic transformation.
 Polytropic Transformation

In this case, actual work can be compared with the work of

another ideal transformation that has the same final conditions
of P and T.
This new ideal transformation composed of many steps, each
one comprising two transformations.
Polytropic Transformation – 1 Step

The first transformation is an isentropic transformation in

which energy supplied to the gas increases T and P.
Polytropic Transformation – 2 Step

The second step is a transformation at constant pressure, in which the

energy supplied to the gas increases only in temperature increments.
By increasing the number of steps, it is possible to more accurately
calculate the work relevant to this ideal or theoretical transformation
between same initial and final conditions as in the actual compression.
This theoretical process is called polytropic transformartion.
 Polytropic Transformation

This transformation can be represented by the formula pressure

multiplied by specific volume to the power n equals constant, with n
representing polytropic index which is dependant on type and
conditions of the gas.
 Polytropic Work

The sum of all isentropic work performed in the

polytropic process is called polytropic work or head.
Polytropic Work
 Polytropic Efficiency
Polytropic work divided by actual work is defined as polytropic
efficiency.
Polytropic efficiency is independent of the thermodynamic state
of the gas undergoing compression on contrary to adiabatic
efficiency which is a function of pressure ratio.
 Performance Curves
Graphical way to display characteristics of compressors; can be
plotted as a function of inlet volume flow at suction nozzle.
 Performance Curves

 Maximum Continuous Speed

The max. rotating speed allowed
for a continuous running of
compressor is referred as MCS. MCS
 Minimum Operating Speed
The min. rotating speed allowed MOS
for a continuous running of
compressor is referred as MOS.
 Choke or Stonewall
This limit is reached at high flow
when gas velocity inside
compressor is equal to sound
velocity or when friction and
shock losses strongly decrease
compressor performance. This
limit drops compressor
efficiency significantly.
 Performance Curves

 Surge
This limit is reached at low flow
when pressure ratio demand on
machine is equal to maximum MCS
pressure ratio that machine can
effectively produce. MOS
At this point, compressor is subjected
to gas flow instability that causes
pressure oscillation. Typical
symptoms are noise and vibration
form compressor and piping. At
surge, back flow can occur and
resulting pressure variations have a
heavy impact on mechanical
components.
Anti-surge systems are provided to
avoid the phenomenon. Anti-surge
control line is normally set close to
surge line and has sufficient margin.
 Off-Design Operation

Factors resulting in off-design operation can also affect

performance are
 Changes in molecular weight of gas

 Change in suction pressure

 Change in suction temperature

 Axial Thrust

 Axial thrust is generated inside compressor along the entire length

of rotor. It is caused mainly by pressures acting against impellers.
 The pressure distribution across impeller generates a force
normally in the direction of suction. The total value of this axial
force depends on pressure levels and surface area of impeller
upon which these pressures act.
 To compensate axial load, thrust bearing has been included in
design of all compressors. Additionally, balancing drum is
provided. This balancing drum is placed after last impeller of
rotor, at discharge end of impeller.
 One side of balance drum is exposed to discharge pressure, while
the other side is exposed to suction pressure through a balancing
line connected to suction side.
 Diameter of balance drum is designed to produce a thrust from
suction to discharge side of compressor. This reduces load coming
from impellers that is placed upon thrust bearing.