BUILDING

TECHNOLOGY 1
Module 2 Lecture 1
Metals
INTRODUCTION
 Chemical elements are broadly classified into two major groups,
metals and non-metals. This classification is based on the various
properties of chemical elements including appearance, density,
melting and boiling points, heat and electrical conductivity and
chemical reactivity. 
 Metals are chemical elements that are good conductors of heat as
well as electricity, malleable, ductile, opaque and have lustrous
appearance.
 They have moderate to high physical constants and high tensile
strength.
 Metals are further divided into two main groups - ferrous and non-
ferrous metals.
METALS ARE ESSENTIAL IN BUILDINGS
 Due to their intrinsic properties, metals are widely used in
the building and construction sector.
 They are a first choice material for structures,
reinforcements, cladding, roofing, window frames,
plumbing, heating equipment and many other applications.
 Metals can be found in old and historic buildings as well as
in new, modern architecture.
PROPERTIES OF METALS
 Strength - The ability of a material to stand up to forces being applied without it
bending, breaking, shattering or deforming in any way.
 Elasticity - The ability of a material to absorb force and flex in different
directions, returning to its original position.
 Plasticity - The ability of a material to be changed in shape permanently.
 Ductility - The ability of a material to change shape (deform) usually by
stretching along its length.
 Tensile Strength – The ability of a material to stretch without breaking or
snapping.
 Malleability - The ability of a material to be reshaped in all directions without
cracking.
 Toughness - A characteristic of a material that does not break or shatter when
receiving a blow or under a sudden shock.
 Conductivity - The ability of a material to conduct electricity.
 Hardness – The ability of a material to resist scratching, wear and tear &
indentation.
 METALS
Ferrous Non-Ferrous Alloys
Containing Do not contain iron A mixture of
iron and  Aluminum metals, or a
almost all are  Copper metal and a
magnetic.  Silver small amount
 Mild steel  Gold of other
 Cast iron  Lid substance
 Wrought  Tin  steel
iron  etc
 Tool steel

Ferrous Alloys Non-Ferrous Alloys

 Brass
 Bronze
 Stainless steel
METALS & ALLOYS
 Metals are available in pure or alloy form.
 Pure Metals such as pure aluminium or pure copper, contain only one
type of metal. They are not mixed with any other metal.
 Alloys are mixture of two or more pure metals.
 Alloys tend to have better strength properties than pure metals.
 Alloys and pure metals often have special physical properties.
  The term “ferrous” comes from a Latin
FERROUS word ferrum, meaning 'containing iron'.
METALS Hence, ferrous metals are all those metals
that contain iron.
 Ferrous metals may contain small amounts
of other elements such as carbon or nickel,
in a specific proportion, that are added to
achieve the desired properties.
 All the ferrous metals are generally magnetic
and have high tensile strength.
 STEEL
 An alloy of iron, is used not only as an integral part of the structural
systems in buildings, but also as part of an architectural ornamental
expression when exposed.
 Exposed structural systems used architecturally include space frames
and arches to span large, unobstructed floor areas, such as convention
halls, exhibition spaces, or sports arenas. Others include cable-
supported structures.
 It is also used for ornamental metalwork to enhance the appearance of
buildings. Some structures are known for their beautiful grille work,
stairs, railings, sculpture, and ornamental metalwork.
 The classification and identification of steel involves, among other things:
(a) chemical composition, (b) method of manufacture, © mechanical
properties, (d) heat treatment, and (e) reference to a recognized
standard.
EXAMPLES OF FERROUS METALS
STEEL: Iron plus carbon; widely used in construction and industrial
metal fabrication
CARBON STEEL: Even higher carbon content added to iron;
exceptionally hard metal
STAINLESS STEEL: An alloy steel made with added chromium which
protects against rust
CAST IRON: combination of Iron, carbon, silicon; heavy, hard metal that
is resistant to wear
OTHER ALLOY STEELS: Lightweight metals such as chromium, nickel,
titanium added to strengthen other metals without adding weight
NON-FERROUS METALS
 Non-ferrous metals are all those metals
that do not contain any amount of iron
and, therefore, lack two of the most
prominent properties of iron -
magnetism and corrosion on exposure
to oxygen, whether atmospheric or in
any other form.
 Owing to the complete absence of iron, these non-
ferrous metals do not attract, nor are they attracted
to, magnets.
 These metals also do not rust like iron does on being
exposed to oxygen and moisture. That just means
they can be processed or manipulated to be made
into building materials that are far more durable than
iron due to their resistance to corrosion.
LIST OF NON-FERROUS METALS
 Aluminum  Molybdenum
 Rhodium
 Zinc  Lanthum
 Indium
 Copper  Barium
 Palladium
 Lead  Bismuth
 Silver
 Chromium  Cobalt
 Gold
 Lithium  Niobium
 Cadmium
 Vandium  Nickel
 Thallium
 Ruthenium  Zirconium
 Hafnium
 Beryllium  Gallium
 Mercury
 Titanium  Yttrium
 Tantanum
 Sodium  Rubidium
 Tin
 Magnesium  Strontium
 Platinum
 Scandium  Cesium
 Tungsten
 Potassium  Technetium
 Iridium
 Calcium  Antimony
 Rhenium
 Manganese  Osmium
FABRICATION PROCESSES
Good architectural design and detailing require not only a knowledge of
the characteristics of the metals used in ornamental metalwork, but also
an understanding of how they are worked, shaped, and formed in the
fabrication process.
 Blanking. In sheet metalwork, the cutting out of a piece of metal,
usually by means of a press.
 Braking. A mechanical bending operation usually performed on
sheets and plates.
 Broaching. Finishing the inside of a hole to a shape other than
round.
 Casting. An article formed by solidification of molten metal in a mold.
 Cold drawing. Drawing metal through a die without the application of
heat.
 Cold-rolled. Metal rolled at room temperature, below the softening
point, usually harder, smoother, and more accurately dimensioned
than hot-rolled material.
 Cold working. The process of changing the form or cross section of a
piece of metal at a temperature below the softening point.
 Countersinking. Beveling the edge of a hole for the reception of the
head of a bolt, rivet, or screw.
 Drawing. Forcing metal to flow into a desired shape without melting
by pulling it through dies.
 Embossing. Development of a raised design on a metal surface by
die pressure or by stamping or hammering on the reverse surfaces.
 Extrusion. Forcing a molten metal through a die by pressure.
 Fluting. Formation of a semi-circular groove or series of grooves in
sheet metal.
 Forging. Heating and hammering or pressing metal into a desired
shape.
 Forming. Pressing metal into shape by mechanical operations other
than machining.
 Hot-forming. Working operations such as bending, drawing, forging,
piercing, and pressing performed at temperatures above the
recrystallization temperature of the metal.
 Lost-wax process. A process using patterns of wax which are melted
and drained from the mold before the metal is poured; used in the
making of castings involving undercuts and other complications.
 Milling. Removal of metal to develop a desired contour by means of
a revolving cutting tool.
 Perforating. Punching or drilling multiple holes in sheet metal,
blanks, or formed parts.
 Pressing. Forcing metal to conform to the shape of a die by means
of pressure.
 Punching. Forcing a punch through metal into a die, forming a hole
the shape of the punch.
 Reaming. Enlarging a round hole in a piece of metal by means of a
revolving edged tool.
 Riveting. Forming a connection between two or more pieces of metal
by passing a rivet through aligned holes and upsetting to form a
head.
 Rolling. Shaping metal, either hot or cold, by passing it between
revolving rolls set to a predetermined distance apart. Rolls may be
flat or shaped as desired.
 Seaming. Uniting the edges of a sheet or sheets by bending over or
doubling and pinching the edges together.
 Shearing. Cutting metal by the action of two opposing passing
edges.
 Spinning. Shaping sheet metal by bending or buckling it under
pressure applied by a smooth hand tool or roller while the metal is
being revolved rapidly.
 Stamping. Bending, shaping, cutting out, indenting, embossing, or
forming metal, either hot or cold, by means of shaped dies in a press
or power hammer.
 Straightening. Eliminating deformations by pressing, rolling, or
stretching.
 Stretcher leveling. A process of stretching a metal sheet to produce a
straight, flat face.
 Swaging. Surface working of a forging (either hot or cold) by means
of repeated blows, usually between dies.
 Tapping. Cutting internal threads in a punched or drilled hole.
 Tempering. A heat treatment whereby metal is brought to a desired
degree of hardness and elasticity.
 Tumbling. A process of cleaning metal articles by placing them in a
revolving container, with or without cleaning material.
 Turning. Removal of metal by means of an edged cutting tool while
the piece is being revolved about its axis.
 Upsetting. Building up or thickening the section of a piece of hot or
cold metal by shortening the piece by axial compression.
 Work hardening. The increase in hardness developed in a metal as a
result of cold working.
STANDARD STOCK MILL PRODUCTS
For most architectural applications, there are standard stock metal
items, produced in the following forms:
 Angle. A section of metal rolled, drawn, extruded through L-shaped
rolls or dies.
 Bar. Round, square, rectangular, hexagonal, or other solid stock of
drawn, rolled, or extruded metal. A rod.
 Channel. A rolled, drawn, or extruded metal section having a U-
shape.
 Flat. A rectangular bar whose width is greater than its thickness.
 Pipe, round. A hollow, round section of metal, the size of which is
determined by the nominal inside diameter.
 Pipe, square. A hollow, square section of metal, the size of which is
determined by the nominal outside dimensions.
 Plate. A flat piece of metal. Various metals are defined as plate by
the following thickness criteria:
o Aluminum, ¼” or more
o Copper, 0.188 inch or more
o Steel, stainless steel, 3/16” or more
 Sheet. A thin, flat piece of metal, the thickness of which is thinner
than plate.
 Strip. Narrow metal sheets either produced in coil form or cut to
length and finished flat.
 Tubing. A hollow section of metal which may be round, square,
rectangular, hexagonal, octagonal, or other shape, measured by the
external size and wall thickness by gage.
 Wire. A small-diameter rod measured by gage, produced by a
drawing process.
SURFACE WORKING
Surface-working processes involve the application of certain operations
to the surface of metals to alter their appearance and include the
following:
 Blasting, cleaning. Obtaining a mottled or pebbled surface by means
of blasting the surface wit sand, grit, or steel shot through a nozzle by
air pressure.
 Brushing, buffing, polishing. Producing smooth, satin, bright, or
buffed finishes by means of wheels on high-speed lathes by belts on
sanding wheels, or by disks and wheels on hand buffers and
grinders.
 Etching. A process of chemical etching the surface by means of acid
or alkali solutions to obtain decorative architectural effects.
 Grinding. A surface texture is obtained by varying the grit in a
grinding wheel or disk.
 Hammering. Metal surfaces can be altered by indentation through
hammering or peening to obtain the desired degree of surface
alteration.
JOINING
Both ornamental and utilitarian metalwork are fabricated in units and
assembled and joined in the shop into sections. The sections are joined
together in the field into the finished work. Joining is an important
aspect of metalwork and may be performed in different ways, depending
upon the type of metal and the specific problem. Typical joining
procedures include:
 Bolting and Riveting. Bolting and riveting are similar operations where 2 or more
pieces of metal are connected by a bolt or rivet that passes through holes. Bolting
may be temporary or permanent. Riveting is a permanent connection where one
end of the shank is upset by hammer blows to form a head. During this process,
the shank expands to fill the holes fully, thus forming a strong ,tight joint. Riveting is
rarely used now for structural steel.
 Riveting

Bolting
 Welding. Welding is a process of joining metals by applying heat and pressure,
with or without filler material, to produce an actual union through fusion. Welding
sometimes imparts distortion, brittleness, or changes in strength and ductility at the
joint. To overcome these deficiencies, cold working oand annealing are often
necessary to restore the original working characteristics, with non-ferrous metals,
such as aluminum, the factor of color may have an important bearing upon the
choice of the proper welding process and the proper electrode or filler metal.
Typical welding processes are:
− Carbon arc – an electric arc process wherein a carbon electrode is used, and
fusion is produced by heating. Pressure may or may not be applied, and filler
material may or may not be used.
− Electric arc – a process wherein a metal electrode is used which supplies the
filler material in the weld and the heat to produce the fusion.
− Forge welding – a process wherein fusion is produced by heating in a forge or
furnace and applying pressure or blows to the work.
− Fusion welding – a process of welding without pressure in which a portion of
the base metal is melted. It is usually accomplished by gas flame or electric
arc heating.
− Gas welding – a process of welding wherein fusion is produced by heating
with gas (acetylene, hydrogen) with or without pressure and with or without
filler material.
− Resistance welding – a process of welding accomplished by placing the work
to be joined under pressure in a machine, then applying an electric charge
through the joint, the resistance of which produces heat to fuse the joint.
 Brazing. It is a process wherein a molten filler metal is used to join metal parts.
Like soldering, brazing creates an extremely strong joint, usually stronger than the
base metal pieces themselves, without melting or deforming the components. The
filler metal has a melting point below that of the metals to be joined. Brazing is
accomplished at temperatures above that of soldering and below that of welding.
Heating for brazing may be accomplished by dipping the parts into a bath of the
molten alloy, by heating with torches, furnace heating, or by electrical resistance.
Some of the more common filler metals used are:
− Aluminum-silicon
− Copper-phosphorous
− Silver
− Copper and copper-zinc (brass)
− Nickel alloy
 Soldering. It is a process like brazing with the filler metal having a melting
temperature range below that of brazing. Since soldering temperatures are low,
there is no alloying of the base metal and the solder. As a result, the base metals
are usually stronger than the joint. Where the strength of the joint in sheet
metalwork is to be improved, it is advisable to reinforce the seams by crimping,
interlocking, riveting, or bolting before soldering, depending upon the solder to
make the joint tight. Note that aluminum is not easily soldered.
HEAT TREATING
Heat treating is employed in metalworking to induce certain properties or
to relieve stresses and strains after certain metalworking processes
have been performed. Heat treating processes include:
 Annealing. A heating and cooling operation performed on metal in the solid-state
involving cooling at a relatively slow rate. The process generally results in reducing
hardness, improving machinability, facilitating cold working, removing stresses, and
altering ductility and toughness of metals. The temperature of the operation and
the rate of cooling will depend upon the specific metal and the purpose of the
annealing process.
 Tempering. A specific heat treatment whereby metal is brought to a desired degree
of hardness or softness.
METALLIC PROTECTIVE COATINGS
Carbon steels are often coated with metallic protective coatings to inhibit
corrosion of the base metal. To ensure sound protective coatings, they
must be of uniform density and free of pinholes or other discontinuities.
Zinc coatings protect steel based on the galvanic reaction between zinc
and steel which causes zinc to corrode in favor of the steel. Zinc is
applied to steel products by several different methods as follows:
 Hot-dip galvanizing. A process of coating steel products by
immersing them in a bath of molten zinc after cleaning them. This
process provides the surface with tightly adhering coat of zinc, which
is one of the most effective agents in protecting steel from rust.
Several classes of hot-dip zinc coatings are available relating to the
weight of coating per square foot of surface. The weight of coating to
be used is proportionate to the severity of the corrosion potential to
be expected.
 Electro-galvanizing. A process produced by an electric current. By
immersing a steel product in the electroplating solution of zinc sulfate
or zinc cyanide, a pure zinc coating is deposited whose thickness can
be controlled. Heavy coatings such as those provided by the hot-dip
method cannot be obtained in the electrolytic process.
 Sherardizing. A zinc cementation process wherein the steel product
is surrounded by zinc dust and then heated in an oven. A thin zinc
coating is produced over the steel product. This process is limited to
small products of complex shape. This is also known as Powder
Coating.
 Spraying. A process whereby zinc is fed in the form of a wire into a
spray gun, where it is melted and projected by air pressure in a hot,
atomized spray against the object to be coated.
 Painting. Application of a zinc-rich paint on prepared surfaces of
steel.
 Anodizing. While anodizing is most common with aluminum, it can
also be used on other metals such as titanium and zinc. However,
ferrous metals cannot be anodized because the iron oxide, or rust,
flakes off, which causes the anodized layer to also flake off. When
aluminum is exposed to oxygen, a layer of aluminum oxide is formed
on the surface of the metal. Anodizing effectively increases the
thickness of this aluminum oxide layer, which makes it more resistant
to corrosion. To further increase the durability and corrosion
resistance, a clear sealant can be used. The anodizing process also
provides better adhesion for paints and other finishes. Finally, the
anodized aluminum can be dyed prior to sealing to provide a colored
aluminum.
 Porcelain Enamel Coatings. Most commonly seen in cast-iron
cookware, enamel coatings provide a smooth and consistent coating
that is resistant to stains and scratches. The coating also prevents
corrosion. Since they are resistant to stains, enamel coatings provide
easy cleaning for surfaces prone to graffiti. Porcelain enamels are
used most often on toilet-room partitions.
GALVANIC ACTION
Galvanic action occurs when two electrochemically dissimilar metals are
in contact and a conductive path occurs for electrons and ions to move
from one metal to the other. One metal corrodes as its ions are
deposited onto the other metal. Therefore, it is important to keep these
dissimilar metals insulated from each other to prevent accelerated
corrosion. Generally, water, and especially salt water, serve as the
conductive path between two metals so it is important to keep dissimilar
metals separated in wet conditions.
Cathodes are noble, or stable, metals that are not prone to corrosion.
Examples are gold, silver, nickel, and titanium. Jewelry is made from
these materials because it does not corrode rapidly.

Anodes are less stable and are more susceptible to corrosion. Examples
include zinc, galvanized steel, and aluminum.

Since anodes and cathodes will react with each other, it is very important
to keep these metals apart. For instance, if zinc was in contact with
silver and this was submerged in a salt-water solution, the zinc ions
would be transferred to the silver and the zinc would corrode.
The scale displayed here shows
the relative location, in the galvanic
series, of many common metals.
When two metals are close to each
other on the scale, they have a
lesser tendency to corrode.
However, there are many factors
that can affect the corrosion
resistance, including the alloy of
the metal, and the environment.
The scale shown is based on the
metals being submerged in
seawater and should be used only
as a general outline.
The galvanic scale demonstrates that if a stainless steel element was
fastened in place using galvanized (zinc) metal fasteners, the galvanized
fasteners would rapidly corrode as its ions move toward the stainless
steel, which would cause the stainless steel element to come loose.
FERROUS METALS
MILD STEEL
 Mild steel is the most commonly used
ferrous metal.
 It contains about 0.15 to 0.30%
carbon and the rest is iron. As mild Methods of Identification
steel has a low carbon content, it
cannot be hardened and tempered, Appearance: Bright drawn mild
however, it can be case hardened. steel has a smooth, bright
 It is malleable and ductile and bends surface; black mild steel is
easily. covered with a blue-grey oxide
 Mild steel is used in the manufacture Dropping: Gives out a ringing note
of nuts, screws, bolts, girders and Grinding: Gives off a shower of
other general metal products. long white sparks
Effect of Heating: Slightly tougher
but little change
STRUCTURAL STEEL SHAPES
The nomenclature for steel shapes follows two standards:
 For wide flange, bearing pile, S-shapes, channels, and tees: the letter
indicates the shape, the first number indicates the nominal height, and
the second number indicates the weight per 1 foot of length.  For
instance, the W12x36 listed in the table below is a wide flange shape
that has a nominal height of 12" and weighs 36 pounds per foot of
length.
 For steel tubes, pipes, plates, and angles: the 3 numbers indicate the
height, width, and thickness of the steel. 
CARBON STEEL
 Carbon steel, also known as tool steel
or cast steel, is an iron alloy with 0.5 to
1.5% carbon.
 The major property of carbon steel is
its toughness. It can be hardened and
tempered and is fairly ductile. Methods of Identification
 Carbon steel is mainly used in the
manufacture of tools like drills, chisels, Appearance: Has a smooth skin of
shears and hammer heads. black oxide
 It has a smooth skin of black oxide and Dropping: Gives out a high ringing
becomes hard and brittle on heating. note
Grinding: Moderate number of red
sparks
Effect of Heating: Becomes hard and
brittle
CAST IRON
 Cast iron is another commonly used
ferrous metal. It is made up of 2 to
6% of carbon and 94 to 98% of iron.
 It is hard and strong but quite brittle.
Cast iron has a high compressive
strength and is resistant to oxidation.
It can be classified into different
varieties like gray cast iron, malleable
cast iron and white cast iron. Methods of Identification
 Cast iron is normally used in the Appearance: Grey with a granular
manufacture of heavy crushing surface
machinery, machine tool parts, brake
drums, car cylinder blocks, machine Dropping: gives out a dull note
handles and gear wheels, plumbing Grinding: Gives off a few dull sparks
material, etc.
Effect of Heating: No change
 WROUGHT IRON
 Wrought iron contains less than
0.008% carbon. As it is almost 100%
pure iron, it is highly resistant to
Methods of Identification corrosion and oxidation.
Appearance: Grey with a granular  It is strong and tough, yet, fibrous and
surface ductile.
Dropping: gives out a dull note  Wrought iron can be welded, machined
Grinding: Gives off a few dull sparks and plated easily.
Effect of Heating: Slightly tougher,  It is used to make ornamental gates
but little change and railings.
COLD FORMED METAL FRAMING
 Cold formed metal framing, also referred to as light gauge metal
framing (LGMF), has overtaken wood stick framing in commercial
and institutional construction.
 It is also being used in some residential applications. The
advantages of LGMF are many, including: light weight, no warping,
easy cutting, and fast installation.
Metal Stud Sizes
Shaftwall / C-H Stud Sizes
 Shaftwall is used when only one side of the wall is accessible, as in
mechanical shafts where there is no floor on one side of the wall.
 The 1" portion of the stud holds a 1" shaft liner, which can be installed
from the floor-side of the wall; fasteners are not required to hold the
shaft liner in place. After the shaft liner is installed, gypsum wall
board is installed as usual from the floor-side of the wall.
 The taller leg of the J Track goes on the shaft-side of the wall to help
hold the shaft liner in place.
Metal Furring Sizes
Both hat channels and zee furring are used to apply gypsum wall board
to a concrete or CMU block wall.

hat zee
STAINLESS STEEL
 Stainless steel makes up a family of corrosion- and rust-resistance
iron-base alloys containing a minimum of 12 % chromium. The
corrosion resistance is improved by adding more chromium
 Nickel and manganese when alloyed with the chromium-iron-base
metal produces special characteristics, such as strength, toughness,
and ease of fabrication.
 Stainless steel is the strongest, most durable, and most corrosion-
resistant of all the architectural metals. It is likewise non-staining and
can therefore be used with other materials such as stone, metals,
and clay tile products without the danger of staining and deterioration.
 Because of its strength, lighter gages can be used as compared to
other metals, thereby effecting economies. Also, because of its
corrosion-resistant properties, minimal maintenance is required of
stainless steel.
ALLOY CLASSIFICATION
Only 7 of 40 different stainless steel alloy compositions are commonly
used in architectural metalwork. In addition, stainless steel is divided
into 3 groups according to metallurgical structure and have basic
differences that are of importance to architects:
 Austenitic stainless steels contain nickel and are essentially non-

magnetic. They are hardened by cold working but not by heating.

They are ductile and can be fabricated and welded easily.
 Ferritic stainless steels contain chromium as the primary alloying

element and are magnetic. They are hardened only slightly by heat
treating and can be hardened moderately by cold working.
 Martensitic stainless steels contain a magnetic alloy with a limited

application in architectural uses.

GRADES
Stainless steel is an important metal alloy, finding uses in thousands of
applications in building construction and renovation, as well as in
industry and domestic applications. The metal is prized for its ability to
resist corrosion and admired for its beautiful yet sturdy appearance.
Since stainless steel is an alloy created by mixing several different types
of materials, its characteristics and appearance can be manipulated. It is
used for sheet, strip, plate, bars, tubing, and extrusions that find
application in both exterior and interior architectural metalwork, such as
column covers, doors, fascias, mullions, panels, windows, trim, and for
roofing metalwork
300 Series
300 series stainless steels are austenitic, which means that they are a solid solution of
iron containing face-centered cubic crystals. The greatest contributor to alloy in
austenitic stainless steels is chromium and nickel. These steels are easy to maintain,
can withstand high temperatures and are very corrosion resistant. The 300 series
stainless steels most commonly used in the construction industry are described below.
301 Stainless Steel
 This type of stainless steel is often used in decorative interior and exterior applications due to
a shiny surface and resistance to atmospheric corrosion. 301 steel is
 Also extremely strong in tension yet remains readily workable at room temperature.
 This steel, along with the other 300 series steels, has a variant with an added “L” in the name
(for example, 301L). The “L” represents a low carbon content, which provides increased
workability and increased corrosion resistance at weld locations when joining two or more
stainless steel pieces together.
304 Stainless Steel
 304 stainless steel is the most commonly used type of stainless steel alloy, is easily available
and is found in a wide range of applications; for bolts, nuts, screws, and other fasteners
 This type of steel comprises over 50% of the stainless steel produced worldwide, and is
sometimes known as “18-8” steel due to its 18% chromium, 8% nickel content.
 304 stainless steel lends itself to easy shaping due to its balanced chemical structure, is
highly resistant to corrosion and easy to weld.
 304H stainless steel with an increase carbon content is also available -- this variant is suitable
for applications in environments with elevated temperatures.
316 Stainless Steel
 316 stainless steel contains a percentage of the element molybdenum (around 2-3%), which
provides greater resistance to corrosion than 304 stainless steel.
 This type of steel is commonly used in applications where the metal will be exposed to
corrosive environments (such as acidic vapors) or in situations where the steel would be
exposed to saltwater.
 316 steel is also known as “surgical stainless” and finds extensive use in the medical and
food industry. Due to its increased corrosion resistance, 316 finds many uses in cold-weather
climates where deicing salts are used to clear streets and sidewalks.
 The steel is highly resistant to the chemicals used in deicing and requires minimal polishing to
retain its exterior finish.
317 Stainless Steel
 Type 317 steel is not commonly used in the construction industry, but can be the best fit for
projects and situations where the environment requires a stainless steel with even higher
corrosion resistance than type 316.
 This increased potential for corrosion may stem from industrial pollution, excessive salt
exposure, climates that are hot and humid with low rainfall, and for steel containing a high
surface roughness.
 Type 317 steel contains molybdenum in a range of 3-4%.
 To achieve even greater levels of corrosion resistance than 317L steel, there is another
variant entitled “317 LMN”, which contains increased quantities of molybdenum and nitrogen
in the alloy.
400 Series
400 series steels contains ferritic (body-centered cubic crystal) and martensitic (lens-
shaped crystal) steels. These steels contain approximately 11% more chromium than
the 300 series, providing high strength and wear resistance but a greater susceptibility
to corrosion than 300 steels. The most commonly used 400 series steel in the
construction industry is 430.

410 Stainless Steel

 410 stainless steel is used for mechanical fasteners where less corrosion resistance is
required

430 Stainless Steel

 430 stainless steel is ferritic chromium stainless steel alloy and is often used in decorative
applications , as it is relatively easy to form and the surface lends itself to easy cleaning and
polishing.
 The steel has a magnetic field and is best suited to interior environments where it will not be
subjected to a corrosive atmosphere.
 430, has no nickel and less costly than austenitic types previously described.
904L Stainless Steel
 Though typically confined to industrial applications, 904L stainless steel can
be used in cases where extreme corrosion resistance is required, over and
above that of 317 LMN stainless.
 904L contains copper, which is what allows the metal to be more acid
tolerant than other stainless steels.
 In addition, this steel is easier to weld than other low-carbon stainless steels,
as it has a lower tendency to form precipitates during the welding process.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 Yield strength is between 30,000 to 50,000 psi
 Tensile strength is between 75,000 and 115,000 psi
 Modulus of elasticity is about 28M psi
 Coefficient of thermal expansion is 0.0000094
FINISHES
In addition to the standard mill finish, stainless steel comes in many
proprietary finishes available from individual producers. These finishes
range from:
 Dull finish

◦ Non-architectural
◦ Non-reflective
◦ Satin finish
 Bright finish

◦ Moderately reflective
◦ Highly reflective
◦ Machine-polished with a visible grain (most frequently used for
architectural applications)
◦ Mirror finish
FABRICATING PROCESSES
Forming
 Stainless steels for architectural applications may be cut by shearing and sawing.
They may be blanked, nibbled, punched, and drilled – also brake formed, roll
formed, cast and extruded
 Castings are used for hardware and for ornamental purposes in sculpture and
plaques
 Extrusions of stainless steels are also available in angles, railings, stiles,
thresholds, and other shapes. There are limitations on the sizes based on
extrusion technique. Since extrusion is a constantly evolving procedure, designers
should consult the extruder or fabricator for information on the latest development
in extrusion process.
 The high ductility of stainless steel permits the use of sharp bends, and moderately
deep stamped patterns.
 Sheets of ga. 18 or thinner can be bent 180o and flattened without cracking.
Joining
 Stainless steels can be assembled or joined by welding and soldering, and by
mechanical fasteners (bolts, screws, rivets)
 Welding of stainless steel is readily performed by all the common fusion and
resistance methods. In most instances, grinding and polishing of welds removes
any trace of the weld, which blends with the adjacent surface.
 Soldering is accomplished with phosphoric fluxes that will not corrode stainless
steel. Soldering should be used to fill or seal a joint, but not provide structural
strength.
 Mechanical fastening of all-stainless steel assemblies should be accomplished with
stainless steel screws, bolts, and rivets to ensure a permanent non-corroding
attachment.
 Adhesive bonding of stainless steel to plywood and hardboard in the production of
veneer panels and sandwich panels is possible with the development of structural
adhesives such as epoxies and polyurethanes.
 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
 High strength to weight ratio -  Costly waste
minimize the substructures cost, which  High cost of final finishing &
is beneficial in poor ground condition. polishing
 High quality material - readily  Environmental issue
available worldwide in various certificate
grades.
 Speed of construction
 Versatility - suits range of construction
methods & sequences.
 Modification & repair
 Recycling
 Durability
 Aesthetics - has a broad architectural
possibilities.
WHAT IS REINFORCING STEEL
 Reinforced concrete was designed on the principle that steel and
concrete act together in resisting force
 Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension.
− The tensile strength is generally rated about 10 percent of the
compression strength.
− For this reason, concrete works well for columns and posts that are
compression members in a structure. But, when it is used for tension
members, such as beams, girders, foundation walls, or floors, concrete
must be reinforced to attain the necessary tension strength
 Steel is the best material for reinforcing concrete because the
properties of expansion for both steel and concrete are considered to
be approximately the same; that is, under normal conditions, they will
expand and contract at an almost equal rate.
Identifying Marks on Rebars:
Manufacturer's Identifying Mark / Company Logo - registered symbols /
logos thru Philippine Patent Office.

Bar Size - the diameter can be identified by looking for the embossed
dots/number on the individual rebar.
Physical Deformations of Rebars
Rebar Grade and Color Code
Color coding according to specific grade:
 Grade 230 (Structural or Gr33) - White (for low-rise
buildings and low loading conditions
 
 Grade 275 (Intermediate or Gr40) - Yellow (for medium
rise structures and infrastructure works)
 
 Grade 415 (High-tensile or Gr60) - Green (for medium
and high-rise structures and infrastructure works)

 Grade 520 (Gr70) – Orange (same Gr60)

 
* Weldable Grade - Red (Additional color code on the
other end of the bar)
NON-FERROUS METALS
ALUMINUM
 Aluminum is a nonmagnetic silvery white metal that is easily formed
in the fabrication process by extrusion, rolling, drawing, stamping,
casting, and forging.
 It is light in weight (170 lbs/cf or about a third of the weight of steel of
the same volume) and has a melting point of about 1200oF, and the
tensile strength is 22,000psi.
 Since unalloyed aluminum is deficient in strength and soft, it is rarely
used in building construction in its refined state. By alloying it with
other elements, its physical characteristics are enhanced
considerably.
 Aluminum provides a high degree of corrosion resistance; since the
products of corrosion are white, staining of adjacent surfaces is
reduced.
 Aluminum alloys are available in bars, castings, extruded sections,
forgings, pipes, plates, sheets, structural shapes, tubes, and wires.
MILL PRODUCTION PROCESSES
 Aluminum extrusions are produced by either pushing or pulling the
material (in a heated/softened state) through a hardened steel die.
o Extrusion is defined as the process of shaping material, such as
aluminum, by forcing it to flow through a shaped opening in a
die. Extruded material emerges as an elongated piece with the
same profile as the die opening. 
o This process produces both simple geometric shapes (aluminum
angle, channels, pipes, tubular sections, etc.) and the more
complex “purpose-made” designs. All of these forms normally
display longitudinal lines of varying width, texture and tone.
Various surface abrasions may also be apparent.
 In a rolling process, aluminum sheet is produced in a similar way to
flattening pasty with a rolling pin.
o The constant backwards and forwards rolling process reduces
the material to the required gauge thickness and temper
(hardness) and in so doing the sheet becomes 'polished' to some
degree.
o The alloy mix of the aluminum will also effect the materials'
brightness and reflectivity. Sheets will sometimes display rolling
bands or stripes and may also commonly possess a grainy type
finish.
ALUMINUM FINISHES
Aluminum is unique among the architectural metals with
respect to the wide variety of sections and finishes available
as a result of research and development. There are many
different surface finishes that can be applied to protect and
enhance the appearance of aluminum.
MILL FINISH
 Aluminum may be used without anodized finish or applied coatings,
since exposure to the air will result in the formation of a thin,
protective oxide film. All aluminum has an oxide of some varying
thickness.
 Once the extrusion or rolling mill has manufactured the aluminum into
the desired shape and size the material is said to be in the mill finish
condition.
 "Mill Finish" is the natural appearance of the aluminum as it comes
from the rolling mill (Alcoa, Reynolds, Kaiser, or Alcan) or the
extrusion mill. It is "as is" with no external mechanical or chemical
finishing.
 However, aluminum mill finish is not an applied surface finish, but
simply untreated aluminum.
MECHANICAL FINISH
 Mechanical finishes are performed on individual parts or components,
generally a hand operation, although mechanical equipment is
involved. These operations may include buffing wheels, belt
polishers, sanders, and blasting equipment.
 Buffing finish should be reserved for narrow, flat surfaces, since
application of this process to broad surfaces will result in overlaps,
thus reducing uniformity of finish and appearance.
 Some aluminum alloys may not be capable of receiving a mechanical
finish because the cladding is too thin to withstand such an operation.
CHEMICAL FINISH
 Chemical finishing serves 3 principal purposes: i) to clean the
aluminum surface in preparation for subsequent finishes, ii) to
provide surfaces of uniform electrochemical reactivity to receive
anodic coatings, iii) to etch the surface to obtain specific light
reflectance characteristics.
 Chemical treatment is performed in batches; the finished products
are loaded into chemical baths that are part of the sequence of
operations.
 Chemical treatments are classified as: a) general cleaning treatment
(non-etched), b) etched treatment, which results in matte finish, c)
brightened finishing ranging from mirror bright to diffuse bright, and d)
chemical conversion coatings (used for paints, coatings, and
laminations, but not to receive anodic finishes).
ANODIC FINISH
 Anodizing is an electrolytic process in which the aluminum to be
anodized is immersed in a specific acid solution through which a
direct electric current is passed between the aluminum and the
solution, with the aluminum acting as the anode.
 This causes negatively-charged oxygen anions to combine
chemically with the aluminum, forming an aluminum oxide film.
 This electrolytic process results in the controlled formation of a
relatively thin but durable anodic coating on the surface of the metal,
as compared to natural weathering of aluminum, which results in a
very thin, soft, and sometimes chalky oxide coating.
TYPES OF ANODIZING PROCESSES
 Sulfuric acid anodizing. This process is the oldest and one of the
most widely used anodizing processes. In this process, sulfuric acid
is used as the electrolytic solution. The most notable finishes are the
typically clear, transparent coatings. With the advent of newer
processes, this process is now often referred to as the conventional
process.
 Integral color hardcoat anodizing. In this process, special patented
acid electrolytes are used and the integral color is obtained by means
of the electrolyte, the aluminum alloy, higher electric current
densities, higher voltages, and more accurate control of the
electrolyte composition and temperature. The oxide coatings
developed through this method are denser and have higher
resistance to abrasion than the conventional anodic coatings. The
colors range from light- to dark-bronze, light- to dark grays, and
black.
 Electrolytically deposited colors. A proprietary method known as
Analok, licensed by the Aluminum Company of Canada, Ltd,
produces a range of lightfast colors similar to those produced by the
integral color hardcoat process. In this process, stable metallic
compounds are electrolytically deposited at the base of the pores in a
previously formed oxide coating.
APPLIED COATINGS
In addition to the electrochemical anodic finishes, four other types are
provided. These coating types are designated:
 Resinous-organic coatings
− Fluoropolymers
− Powdered coatings
− Sliconized polymers
− Plastisols
− Other organic resins
 Vitreous coatings
 Electroplated coatings
 Laminated coatings
COPPER
 Copper and its alloys are widely
used in construction for a large
variety of purposes, particularly
applications requiring corrosion
resistance, high electrical
conductivity, strength, ductility,
impact resistance, fatigue
resistance, or other special
characteristics possessed by
copper and its alloys.
 Some of the special characteristics of importance to construction are
ability to be formed into complex shapes, appearance, and high
thermal conductivity, although many of the alloys have low thermal
conductivity and low electrical conductivity as compared with the pure
metal.
 When copper is exposed to the air and oxidizes, a green patina forms
on the surface that is sometimes objectionable when it is washed
down over adjacent surfaces, such as ornamental stone. The patina
is formed particularly in industrial atmospheres. In rural
atmospheres, where industrial gases are absent, the copper normally
turns to a deep brown color.
 Principal types of copper and typical uses are:
− Electrolytic tough pitch (99.90% copper) is used for
− electrical conductors – bus bars, commutators, etc.,
− building products – roofing, gutters, etc.
− process equipment - kettles, vats, distillery equipment
− forgings
− general properties are high electrical conductivity, high
thermal conductivity, and excellent working ability
− Deoxidized (99.90% copper and 0.025% phosphorus) is used in:
− Tube form – for water and refrigeration service, oil burners,
etc.
− Sheet and plate form – for welded construction
− General properties include higher forming and bending
qualities than electrolytic copper. They are preferred for
copper-smithing and welding because of resistance to
embrittlement at high temperature.
BRASS
 Brass is the generic term for a
range of copper-zinc alloys with
differing combinations of
properties, including strength,
machinability, ductility, wear-
resistance, hardness, color,
antimicrobial, electrical and
thermal conductivity, and
corrosion-resistance.
 A considerable range of brasses, or copper-zinc alloys, is obtainable
for a large variety end uses. The high ductility and malleability of
brass make it suitable for operations like deep drawing, bending and
swaging. They have a wide range of colors and are generally less
expensive than the high-copper alloys.
 For deep drawing and other heavy working operations, a large grain
size is required , but for highly finished polished surfaces, the grain
size must be small .
 Like copper, brass is hardened by cold working. Hardness is strongly
influenced by alloy composition, original grain size, and form (strip,
rod, tube, wire).
 Brass also has excellent thermal conductivity making it a first choice for
heat exchangers (radiators). Its electrical conductivity ranges from 23 to
44% that of pure copper.
 The principal plain brasses, with compositions ranging from high copper
content to zinc contents of 40% or more are:
− Commercial bronze, employed in forgings, screws, stamped
hardware, and weatherstripping
− Red brass, used for hardware and tubing and piping for plumbing
− Cartridge brass, used in fabricating processes, pins, rivets, heating
units, electrical sockets
− Muntz metal, used architectural work, condenser tubes, valve stems,
brazing rods, etc.
 Brasses have a range of attractive colors ranging from red to yellow to
gold to silver. With the addition of 1% manganese, brass will weather to a
chocolate brown color. Nickel silvers will polish to a brilliant silver color.
 Modern decorative techniques are available for toning brass to almost
any desired color from a gold-like yellow, through dull yellows and amber
browns, to chocolate brown and black. All these colors have an
extremely long life even in working environments.
 Brasses are easy to shape, and with all these colors available it is not
surprising that architects and designers have used brasses to enhance
the appearance of new and refurbished buildings, both inside and out.
There are many advantages associated with brass as an
architectural material, some of which are as follows:
 Superb color and texture
 Will accept a mirror-like polish
 Will not corrode
 Can be manufactured as rod, profile, tube, plate, sheet, foil and
wire
 Good strength and ductility
 Easily processed by casting, extruding, rolling, drawing and hot
stamping
 Excellent machining qualities
 No degradation in sunlight
 Will not soften in high temperatures (up to 200oC)
 Will not embrittle in sub-zero temperatures (down to -100oC)
BRONZE
 Originally, bronze is an alloy of
copper and tin. Today, the term
bronze generally refers to
engineering metals having high
mechanical properties and the
term brass to other metals.
 Bronze is a metal alloy produced by blending copper and tin in
various amounts, depending on the application. Additional elements
such as manganese, lead, and phosphorous are added to
create bronze with specific properties. 
 Bronze is found in bells, statuary, bearings, gears, valves, pipes, and
other plumbing fittings, and it is a sturdy, durable metal when well
cared for.
 Humans have been working with bronze for over 3,000 years in
various parts of the world, using it for weapons, coins, tableware, and
an assortment of other household purposes.
 Bronze is made by smelting copper and tin together. When bronze is
cast for use in statues, it contains between two and 20% tin, while
bells use a higher percentage of tin: 15-20%. Additives are included
when the bronze needs to be more workable, harder, or easier to
cast. For example, phosphorous is added to harden bronze for use in
tubing and various machine parts, while lead is included to
make bronze take more readily to casting. 
 Bronze is often confused with brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, but
the two alloys have different properties and are used for different
things. In addition, bronze is much harder than brass.
 Bronze has several properties that make it valuable in industrial
applications. The first is that the metal causes minimal friction,
making it highly useful for machine parts and other applications that
involve metal on metal contact, such as gears. 
 Bronze is also non-sparking, so it is often used to make tools for use
in combustible environments. The resonance of bronze also makes it
ideal for use in casting bells.
 One of the more unique properties of bronze is the natural patina that
forms on it, turning the bronze a dark, dull color. This patina is
actively encouraged with most bronze, because it provides a
protective layer, preventing oxidation below the surface of the bronze.
Before being shipped, most bronze is coated with a thin layer
of lacquer to protect the metal and the patina, making the metal very
easy to care for.
 Bronze looks its best when it is minimally treated. The metal should
be kept very clean with a soft cloth, and can be waxed every couple
of years to renew the patina, but it should not be heavily polished or
scrubbed, and abrasives should never be used on bronze. If
the bronze becomes very dirty, it can be gently brushed or washed
with a solution.
 Rarely, bronze will be attacked by “bronze disease,” a type
of corrosion that eats into the bronze. If a bronze piece starts to
corrode, it can be washed in multiple changes of boiling distilled
water, or professionally treated.
METALS REMAIN METALS
 Metals can be recycled without loss of quality.
 Because metallic bonds are restored upon re-
solidification, metals continually recover their
original performance properties, even after multiple
recycling loops.
 This allows them to be used again and again for the
same application.
 By contrast, the performance characteristics of
most non-metallic materials degrade after recycling.
As there is insufficient recycled material to satisfy the
growing demand, virgin material has to be introduced
into the supply chain.
The reuse or recycling of metallic building products
saves resources.