Formation of the Elements

and Nuclear Reactions

Elements are Formed in Different Ways in
our Universe
 Nucleosynthesis
• Nucleosynthesis is the process of element (nuclei) formation.
• Three types: Big Bang nucleosynthesis
Stellar (star) nucleosynthesis
Supernova nucleosynthesis
• Today, only stellar and supernova nucleosynthesis are
occurring in our universe.
• Element formation in our universe relies on nuclear fusion
reactions.
(fusion = come together)
Nuclear Fusion
 The Big Bang
• The Big Bang Theory is the most
widely accepted scientific theory
about the origin of the universe.
It is supported by multiple lines of
evidence.
• The “Big Bang” was a
phenomenally energetic
explosion that initiated the
expansion of the universe.
• (i.e. our Solar System) is 4.65
billion years old.
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
 Stellar Nucleosynthesis
• A star is a very hot ball of gas (plasma). Stars
create elements by combining lighter nuclei into
heavier nuclei via nuclear fusion reactions in
their cores and releasing energy in the process.
They are natural nuclear reactors!
 Stellar Nucleosynthesis
• Stars much larger than our
Sun can fuse heavier elements
from lighter elements.
• These giant stars have an
“onion layer” structure.
• As you proceed deeper into
the star, temperatures and
pressures increase, and
heavier and heavier nuclei are
fused together.
 Nuclear Fusion Requirements
(in stars)
Minimum Core Minimum Core Minimum Stellar
Fusion Fusion By-product
Temperature Density Mass*
Hydrogen He 13 million K 100 gm/cc 0.08 solar masses
Helium C, O 100 million K 100,000 gm/cc 0.5 solar masses
Carbon O, Ne, Mg, Na 500 million K 200,000 gm/cc 4 solar masses

Neon O, Mg 1.2 billion K 4 million gm/cc about 8 solar masses

Oxygen Mg, Si, S, P 1.5 billion K 10 million gm/cc about 8 solar masses

Silicon Si, S, Ar, Ca, Ti, Cr, Fe, around 3 billion K 30 million gm/cc about 8 solar masses
Ni

gm/cc = grams per cubic centimeter (units of density)

https://sites.uni.edu/morgans/astro/course/Notes/section2/fusion.html
 Supernova Nucleosynthesis
An exploded star
• Elements heavier than Iron (Z (supernova)
= 26) are made primarily
when giant stars explode in Relative Abundance of the Elements in our Universe
supernovae.
• Since only the largest stars
can explode in supernovae
events, elements with atomic
numbers 27-92 are rarer than
elements with atomic
numbers 1-26
(see abundance diagram to
right)
 A summary…
(You are made of stardust from exploded stars)
 Nuclear Fission
• We have learned that elements form in the universe by nuclear fusion reactions which
assemble larger nuclei by forcing smaller nuclei together under tremendous temperatures
and pressures.
• However, elements can also form when a large, unstable nucleus breaks apart in an attempt
to achieve a more stable, lower energy state.
• The splitting of a nucleus to form two or more smaller, more stable nuclei is called nuclear
fission. (fission = split)

Nuclear
bullet
 Radioactivity
• Radioactivity is the release
of energy, in the form of
energetic particles and
waves, from the nuclei of
unstable (radioactive)
isotopes. Radioactive atoms
undergo fission-type
reactions in order to try to
become more stable nuclei
with lower energies.
Radioactive atoms are called
radioisotopes.
 Types of Radioactive Decay – Alpha Decay

As a result, the
mass number of
the remaining
nucleus
decreases by 4
and the atomic
number
decreases by 2. A
new element is
formed in the Credit: Khan Academy
 Types of Radioactive Decay – Beta Decay
In beta decay of an unstable
nucleus, a neutron suddenly
changes to a proton,
releasing an electron, a
ghostly, low mass particle
called a neutrino (not
pictured), and energy!

As a result, the atomic

number of the remaining
nucleus increases by 1 but
the mass number does not
change. A new element is
formed!
Credit: Khan Academy
 Types of Radioactive Decay – Gamma Decay
In gamma decay, an
unstable nucleus
releases a high
energy form of
electromagnetic
radiation (light)
called a gamma ()
particle or a
gamma ray. This
particle of light is
also known as a Credit: Khan Academy
 Nuclear Reactions can be Represented by
• Fusion
Nuclear Equations
Making a
larger nucleus
from two or
more smaller
nuclei

• Fission
Making two or
more smaller
nuclei from a
larger nucleus
 Important Symbols Used in Nuclear
• To write a nuclear
Equations
reaction, you must Particle How written in a nuclear reaction
remember how to Proton 1 1
  p or H
read and use   1 1
isotope symbol
Neutron 1
notation   n
  0

Electron 0 0
(Beta particle) e or β
  -1 -1

• You must know the Alpha Particle 4 4

(Helium nuclei) 
symbols used for   2
or
2
He
various subatomic
particles like Gamma Particle or
Ray

protons, neutrons,  
(a massless packet of pure electromagnetic
radiation, a form of energy)
etc.
 Balancing Nuclear Reactions
Check the math on
these examples of
nuclear equations to
238
92 U see if the sums of the
mass numbers and
the atomic numbers
32
P are the same on each
15
side of the
equations.
10
5 B Can you figure out
which equations are
fission and which are
fusion?
 Transmutation
Transmutation is a general term for the changing of chemical element
or isotope to another by changing the number of protons and/or
neutrons. Fusion and fission reactions both qualify as transmutations.
The bombardment of a nucleus by a nuclear bullet in order to change it
into another element also counts as transmutation.
 Synthetic Elements
• Elements with atomic
numbers Z ≥ 93 are
synthetic (man-made)
• These elements have been
made in particle
accelerators, either by
smashing smaller nuclei
together or else by
shooting nuclear bullets at
large nuclei.