Hardware

Chapter 3

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Computer Architecture

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Learning objectives
Understand the role of the central processing unit (CPU) in a computer
Understand what is meant by a microprocessor
Understand the purpose of the components in a CPU, in a computer that has a Von
Neumann architecture
Describe the process of the fetch–decode–execute cycle including the role of each
component in the process
Understand what is meant by a core, cache and clock in a CPU and explain how
they can affect the performance of a CPU
Understand the purpose and use of an instruction set for a CPU
Describe the purpose and characteristics of an embedded system and identify
devices in which they are commonly used
Ms. Hazel Intatano
Bina Bangsa School PIK
Human brain and Computer

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Von Neumann model

Central processing unit (CPU) architecture Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Components of the processor (CPU)
Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
The ALU allows the required arithmetic or logic operations to be carried out while a program is
being run.
Control unit (CU)
The CU reads an instruction from memory (the address of the location where the instruction can be
found is stored in the program counter (PC)).
System clock
A system clock is used to produce timing signals on the control bus to ensure this vital
synchronisation takes place – without the clock the computer would simply crash.
Immediate access store (IAS)
The IAS holds all the data and programs that the processor (CPU) needs to
access.

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Registers
It is an internal memory location within the CPU that temporarily holds
data and instructions during processing.

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
System buses

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
System buses
Address bus Data Bus Control Bus
 a component that carries an  a component that can carry  a component is bidirectional
address. This can be to the data from the processor to which carries signals from the
memory controller to identify the memory or to an output CU to all the other computer
 a location in memory which is device components.
to be read from or written to  or can carry data from the  it is usually 8-bits wide since
or it can be to the I/O system memory or from an input it only carries control signals.
to identify the source or device
destination of the data

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Memory

MAR MDR

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Memory
• First, consider the READ operation.
• We will use the memory section shown below.
• Suppose we want to read the contents of memory location 1111 0001; the two registers are used as
follows:
• the address of location 1111 0001 to be read from is first written into the MAR (memory address
register):

• a ‘read signal’ is sent to the computer memory

• the contents of memory location 1111 0001 are then put into the MDR (memory data register):

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Memory
• Now let us now consider the WRITE operation. Again, we will use the memory section shown
previously.
• Suppose this time we want to show how the value
• 1001 0101 was written into memory location 1111 1101: the address of location 1111 0001 to be
read from is first written into the MAR (memory address register):
• the data to be stored is first written into the MDR (memory data register):

• this data has to be written into location with address: 1111 1101; so this address is now written into
the MAR:

• finally, a ‘write signal’ is sent to the computer memory and the value 10010101 will then be
written into the correct memory location. Ms. Hazel Intatano
Bina Bangsa School PIK
The fetch–execute (F–E) cycle
To execute a set of instructions, the
processor first fetches data and
instructions from memory and stores
them in suitable registers.
Both the address bus and data bus
are used in this process.
Once this is done, each instruction
needs to be decoded before being
executed.

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Video

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Cores, cache and internal clock
System clock, clock
defines the clock cycle
that synchronises all
computer operations.

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Computer Performance:
Factors to consider
1. width of the address bus and data bus
2. Overclocking
3. use of cache memories can also improve CPU
performance
4. use of a different number of cores can improve
computer performance

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Instruction set
These instructions are a set of operations which
are decoded in sequence. Each operation will
instruct the ALU and CU (which are part of the
CPU). An operation is made up of an opcode and
an operand.

Ex.
ADD, LDA, JMP Ms. Hazel Intatano
Bina Bangsa School PIK
Embedded systems
A combination of hardware and software which is
designed to carry out a specific set of functions.
The hardware is electronic, electrical or electro-
mechanical.

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Embedded systems

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Embedded systems

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Examples of the use of embedded systems

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Input and Output Devices

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Learning objectives
Understand what is meant by an input device and why it is required
Understand what is meant by an output device and why it is required
Understand what is meant by a sensor and the purposes of sensors
Identify the type of data captured by each sensor and understand when each
sensor would be used, including selecting the most suitable sensor for a given
context

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Input devices

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Barcode Reader
• A device which reads a series of dark and light
parallel lines of varying thickness.
• The numbers 0 to 9 are each represented by a
unique series of lines.
• Various barcode methods for representing these
digits exist.

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Bina Bangsa School PIK
Diagrams of a barcode

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Common application of barcode reader

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Barcode
Advantages to the
management Advantages to the customers
• much easier and faster to change • faster checkout queues (staff don’t
prices on stock items need to remember/look up prices of
• much better, more up-to-date sales items)
information/sales trends • errors in charging customers is
• no need to price every stock item on reduced
the shelves (this reduces time and cost • the customer is given an itemised bill
to the management) • cost savings can be passed on to the
• allows for automatic stock control customer
• possible to check customer buying • better track of ‘sell by dates’ so food
habits more easily by linking barcodes should be fresher.
to, for example, customer loyalty
cards.
Ms. Hazel Intatano
Bina Bangsa School PIK
Quick Response Code
Advantages of QR codes Disadvantages of QR codes
• hold much more information • more than one QR format is available
• fewer errors • QR codes can be used to transmit
• QR codes are easier to read by the malicious codes – known as attagging.
cameras on smartphones or tablets
• easy to transmit QR codes either as
text messages or images
• possible to encrypt QR codes which
gives them greater protection

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Codes

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Digital Camera
• It has essentially replaced the more traditional camera
that used film to capture the images.
• The film required developing and then printing before
the photographer could see the result of their work.
• This made these cameras expensive to operate since it
wasn’t possible to delete unwanted photographs.
• Modern digital cameras simply link to a computer
system via a USB port or by using Bluetooth (which
enables wireless transfer of photographic files). Ms. Hazel Intatano
Bina Bangsa School PIK
Diagram of a Digital Camera

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Keyboard
• most common method used for data entry
• used as the input devices on computers, tablets, mobile
phones and many other electronic items
• connected to the computer either by using a USB
connection or by wireless connection
• tablets and mobile phones, the keyboard is often
virtual or a type of touch screen technology.

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Diagram of a Keyboard

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Microphones
• device either built into the computer or are external
devices connected through the USB port or using
Bluetooth connectivity.
• a microphone can convert sound waves into an electric
current.
• The current produced is converted to a digital format
so that a computer can process it or store it (on, for
example, a CD).
Ms. Hazel Intatano
Bina Bangsa School PIK
Diagram of a Microphone

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Optical mouse
• An optical mouse is an example of a pointing device.
• It uses tiny cameras to take 1500 images per second.
Unlike an older mechanical mouse, the optical mouse
can work on virtually any surface.

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Diagram of an Optical Mouse

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Scanners
• 2D is the most common
form and are generally
used to input hard copy
(paper) documents.
• The image is converted
into an electronic form
that can be stored in a
computer.
Ms. Hazel Intatano
Bina Bangsa School PIK
Scanners
• 3D scanners scan solid objects and produce a three-
dimensional image.
• solid objects have x, y and z coordinates, these scanners take
images at several points along these three coordinates.
• digital image which represents the solid object is formed.

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Scanners

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Touch screens
• a very common form of input device
• allow simple touch selection from a menu to launch an
application (app)
• allow the user to carry out the same functions as they would
with a pointing device, such as a mouse
• three common types of touch screen technologies currently
being used by mobile phone and tablet manufacturers

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Touch Screens
Capacitive Infrared Resistive
composed of a layer of use a glass screen with  made up of two layers of
glass (protective layer), an array of sensors and electrically resistive material
with a voltage applied across
a transparent electrode infrared transmitters. them, top is made of flexible
(conductive) layer and a polyethylene and bottom layer
glass substrate is made of glass

Infrared screen touched

causing sensors (shown in
red) to show a reduction in
infrared radiation – thus
the exact position where
the screen was touched
can be calculated

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Output devices

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Actuators
• an actuator is a mechanical or electromechanical device such
as a relay, solenoid or motor
• moving part of an actuator is usually connected to another
device in order to move that device
• actuators can rotate, open, close, push and pull an object
• apply movement through the use of energy and the energy is
converted into motion.

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Projectors
• used to project computer output onto larger screens or even
onto interactive whiteboards
• often used in presentations and in multimedia applications
• two projector are technologies digital light projector (DLP)
and liquid crystal display (LCD) projector

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Types of Projector
Digital light projectors Liquid crystal display
(DLP) (LCD) projector
• use of millions of micro mirrors • older technology than DLP.
on a small digital micromirror Essentially a high-intensity beam
device (DMD chip) is the key to of light passes through an LCD
how these devices work. display and then onto a screen

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Diagram of a Digital Light
Projector

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Diagram of a LCD Projector

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Advantages and disadvantages of the two
types of projector

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Printers
• device that produces a hard copy of information
• some produce monochrome printouts and some produce
colours from CMYK
• use ink or toner and the CMYK ink is mixed together to
create different, darker colours
• printers form images by printing tiny dots and is the
resolution is measured by the DPI which is the dots per inch
• more DPIs, the higher the resolution which means 300 DPI is
a high resolution.
Ms. Hazel Intatano
Bina Bangsa School PIK
Types of Printer
Technologies of Inkjet
Inkjet printer printer
• uses ink provided in Thermal bubble – tiny
cartridge and sprayed resistors create localised heat
through nozzles onto paper which makes the ink vaporise.
have 4 cartridges for CMYK
colours. Piezoelectric – a crystal is
located at the back of the ink
reservoir for each nozzle.

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Steps in inkjet printing process

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Types of Printer
Laser printer
• use dry powder ink rather than liquid ink and make use of the
properties of static electricity to produce the text and images.

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Steps in laser printing process

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Types of Printer
3D printer Technologies of 3D printer
• used to produce solid objects that Direct 3D printing uses inkjet
actually work technology; a print head can move left
• primarily based on inkjet and laser to right as in a normal printer.
printer technology However, the print head can also move
• solid object is built up layer by layer up and down to
using materials such as: powdered build up the layers of an object.
resin, powdered metal, paper or
ceramic Binder 3D printing is similar to direct
3D printing. However, this method
uses two passes for each of the layers;
the first pass sprays dry powder and
then on Ms. Hazel Intatano
Bina Bangsa School PIK
Steps in 3D printing process

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Screens
• electronic device to output information using a screen or
projector
• can be in the form of text, images or videos
• external device such as one with a desktop PC can be called a
monitor or virtual display unit (VDU)

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
LED Screen
• made up of tiny light emitting diodes (LEDs). Each LED is
either red, green or blue in colour. By varying the electric
current sent to each LED, its brightness can be controlled,
producing a vast range of colours.

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
LCD Screen
• made up of tiny liquid crystals
• make up an array of pixels that are affected by changes in
applied electric fields
• for LCD screens to work, they require some form of
backlighting

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
OLED Screen
• use organic materials (made up of carbon compounds) to
create semiconductors that are very flexible.

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Speaker
• output devices that produce sound
• connected to a computer system, digitised sound stored on a
file needs to be converted into sound

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Sensors

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Sensor
• input devices which read or measure physical properties from
their surroundings
• examples include temperature, pressure, acidity level and
length

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Examples of Sensor

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Examples of Sensor

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Examples of Sensor

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Monitoring and Control using
Sensors

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Data Storage

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Learning objectives
Understand what is meant by primary storage
Understand what is meant by secondary storage
Describe the operation of magnetic, optical and solid-state (flash memory) storage
and give examples of each
Describe what is meant by virtual memory, how it is created and used and why it
is necessary
Understand what is meant by cloud storage
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of storing data on the cloud in
comparison to storing it locally

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Memory and Storage Devices
Memory Storage
• usually referred to as the internal • allow users to store applications, data
devices used to store data that and files. The user’s data
the computer can access directly • stored permanently and they can
change it or read it as they wish.
• also known as primary memory
• needs to be larger than internal
• can be the user’s workspace, memory since the user may wish to
temporary data or data that is store large files
key to running the computer • can also be removable to allow data
• allow a user to store important data in
a different location in case of data loss
Ms. Hazel Intatano
Bina Bangsa School PIK
Typical memory and storage
devices

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Primary memory
• part of the computer memory which can be accessed directly
from the CPU
• allows the CPU to access applications and services
temporarily stored in memory locations

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Random Access Memory (RAM)
• can be written to or read from, and the data can be changed
by the user or the computer
• used to store data, files, part of an application or part of the
operating system currently in use
• it is volatile, which means memory contents are lost when
powering off the computer

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Types of RAM
Dynamic RAM Static RAM
• consists of transistors and • use of flip flops, which hold each
capacitors bit of memory
• capacitor – this holds the bits of information
(0 or 1) • much faster than DRAM when it
• transistor – this acts like a switch; it allows the comes to data access
chip control circuitry to read the capacitor or
change the capacitor’s value

• needs to be constantly refreshed,

if not, the capacitor’s charge
would leak away very quickly
leaving every capacitor with the
value 0 Ms. Hazel Intatano
Bina Bangsa School PIK
Comparison of DRAM and SRAM

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Read-only memory (ROM)
• non-volatile (the contents are not lost after powering off the
computer)
• permanent memories (the contents cannot be changed or
written to by the user, the computer or any
application/program)
• contents can only be read
• often used to store data that the computer needs to access
when powering up for the first time (the basic input/output
system (BIOS)); these are known as the start-up instructions
(or bootstrap) Ms. Hazel Intatano
Bina Bangsa School PIK
Comparison of RAM and ROM

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Secondary and off-line storage
• storage devices that are not directly addressable by the CPU
• non-volatile devices that allow data to be stored as long as
required by the user
• storage can store more data than primary memory

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Magnetic storage ( Internal and External)
• stores data in a digital format on the magnetic surfaces in
sectors and tracks of the disks
• have a number of platters that can spin at about 7000 times a
second

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Solid state drives (SSD)
• no moving parts and all data is retrieved at the same rate
• store data by controlling the movement of electrons within
NAND or NOR chips

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Optical media
• read data by shining a laser beam onto the surface of plastic
disks.
• disks are coated with aluminium to make them reflective

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Comparison of Optical media

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Virtual Memory
• used when the computer has no more available random
access memory (RAM)
• enables data that is in RAM and not currently being used to
be transferred to the hard disk
• makes a computer run slower, as the processor has to wait
while data is swapped between hard disk and RAM

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Cloud storage
• storing data at a remote location online
• files and data are being sent to a server that is connected to
the internet
• files can be uploaded to a folder system and downloaded as
required

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
System of Cloud storage
Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the
customer/client and cloud storage provider are different companies
Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated
environment behind a company firewall; customer/client and cloud
storage provider are integrated and operate as a single entity
Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above
environments; some data resides in the private cloud and less
sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed from a public cloud
storage provider.

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
System of Cloud storage

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Network Hardware

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Network Interface Card
A network interface
card (NIC) is needed to
allow a device to
connect to
a network (such as the
internet).

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Wireless Network Interface Card
Wireless network
interface cards /
controllers (WNICs)
are the same as NICs in
that they are used to
connect devices to the
internet or other
networks.
Ms. Hazel Intatano
Bina Bangsa School PIK
Media Access Control
A MAC address is made up of 48 bits which are
shown as six groups of hexadecimal digits with
the general format:

NN – NN – NN – DD – DD – DD
manufacturer’s device serial device serial number
code

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Example of Media Access Control

90 – E1 – 7B – 6B – 40 –
C3
manufacturer’s device serial device serial number
code (iPhone)
(Apple)

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Type of MAC Address
Universally Administered Locally Administered
MAC Address (UAA) MAC Address (LAA)
UAA is by far the most A LAA is assigned to a
common type of MAC device by software or a
address and this is the one network administrator,
set by the manufacturer at overriding the burned-in
the factory. It is rare for a address for physical
user to want to change this devices.
MAC address.
Ms. Hazel Intatano
Bina Bangsa School PIK
Internet Protocol (IP) Address
Each device connected to a network is given
an address known as the Internet Protocol
(IP) address. It gives a unique address to
each device connected to a network
identifying their location

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Features of MAC over IP address

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Types of IP Address
Static IP (don’t change) Dynamic IP (changes)
• permanently assigned to a • assigned by the ISP each time a
device by the internet device logs onto the internet.
service provider (ISP) • done using Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP).
• they don’t change each time • A computer on the internet,
a device logs onto the configured as a DHCP server, is
internet. used by the ISP to automatically
assign an IP address to a device.
• As the name suggests, a dynamic
IP address could be different every
time a device connects to the Ms. Hazel Intatano
Bina Bangsa School PIK
Diagrams of Static and Dynamic

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Comparison between Static and Dynamic

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Router
Routers enable data
packets to be routed
between different
networks, for example,
to join a LAN to a
WAN.

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK
Video resources
DLP, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NURkk2BwyjQ
LCD Projector, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bl63AHJ083c
OLED, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wer_fhiQOzQ

Ms. Hazel Intatano

Bina Bangsa School PIK