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AP Reasoning

Deductive reasoning moves from general premises to more specific conclusions. Inductive reasoning moves from specific cases to more general conclusions. Deductive arguments can be determined as valid or invalid based on the form, while inductive arguments are evaluated based on their probability and placement on a continuum from fallacious to cogent. Both forms of reasoning are used in everyday situations, but deductive reasoning is more common in the natural sciences while inductive reasoning is more prevalent in areas like law, business, and media.

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63 views8 pages

AP Reasoning

Deductive reasoning moves from general premises to more specific conclusions. Inductive reasoning moves from specific cases to more general conclusions. Deductive arguments can be determined as valid or invalid based on the form, while inductive arguments are evaluated based on their probability and placement on a continuum from fallacious to cogent. Both forms of reasoning are used in everyday situations, but deductive reasoning is more common in the natural sciences while inductive reasoning is more prevalent in areas like law, business, and media.

Uploaded by

Mary Grace Delfinado
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Formal Versus Informal Logic

Deductive Versus Inductive


Forms of Reasoning
Two basic categories
of human reasoning

• Deduction: reasoning from general premises, which are


known or presumed to be known, to more specific, certain
conclusions.
• Induction: reasoning from specific cases to more
general, but uncertain, conclusions.

• Both deductive and inductive arguments occur frequently


and naturally…both forms of reasoning can be equally
compelling and persuasive, and neither form is preferred
over the other (Hollihan & Baske, 1994).
Deduction Vs. Induction

Deduction: Induction
• commonly associated • commonly known as
with “formal logic.” “informal logic,” or
• involves reasoning “everyday argument”
from known premises,• involves drawing
or premises presumed uncertain inferences,
to be true, to a certain based on probabalistic
conclusion. reasoning.
• the conclusions • the conclusions
reached are certain, reached are probable,
inevitable, reasonable, plausible,
inescapable. believable.
Deductive Versus
Inductive Reasoning

Deduction Induction
• It is the form or structure • By contrast, the form or
of a deductive argument structure of an inductive
that determines its validity argument has little to do with
• the fundamental property its perceived believability or
of a valid, deductive credibility, apart from making
argument is that if the
premises are true, then the argument seem more
the conclusion necessarily clear or more well-
follows. organized.
• The conclusion is said to • The receiver (or a 3rd party)
be “entailed” in, or determines the worth of an
contained in, the premises. inductive argument
– example: use of DNA
testing to establish
paternity
Sample Deductive and Inductive Arguments

Example of Example of
Deduction Induction
• major premise: All • Boss to employee:
tortoises are “Biff has a tattoo of an
anchor on his arm. He
vegetarians probably served in the
• minor premise: Navy.”
Bessie is a tortoise
• conclusion:
Therefore, Bessie
is a vegetarian
sample “Venn diagram”
of a deductive argument

vegetarian animals tortoises


All tortoises Thus, Bessie
fall in the must be a
circle of vegetarian
animals that
are
vegetarians

Bessie falls into the circle


of animals that are
tortoises
Bessie
Deduction Versus Induction
---continued
• Deductive reasoning is • Inductive reasoning
either “valid” or “invalid.”
A deductive argument enjoys a wide range of
can’t be “sort of” valid. probability; it can be
plausible, possible,
• If the reasoning reasonable, credible,
employed in an etc.
argument is valid and
the argument’s • the inferences drawn
premises are true, then may be placed on a
the argument is said to continuum ranging from
be sound.
cogent at one end to
valid reasoning +
true premises = fallacious at the other.
sound argument
fallacious cogent
Deduction Versus Induction
--still more
• Deductive reasoning is • Inductive reasoning is
commonly found in the found in the courtroom,
natural sciences or “hard” the boardroom, the
sciences, less so in classroom, and
everyday arguments throughout the media
• Occasionally, everyday • Most, but not all everyday
arguments do involve arguments are based on
deductive reasoning:
induction
Example: “Two or more
persons are required to – Examples: The
drive in the diamond lane. “reasonable person”
You don’t have two or standard in civil law, and
more persons. Therefore the “beyond a
you may not drive in the reasonable doubt”
diamond lane” standard in criminal law

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