Unit-4

• MAC Sub Layer

• Connecting Devices
• Network Layer
 Contents
MAC Sub Layer: Network Layer:
1. MAC Address 1. Logical Addressing
2. Multiple Access Protocol 2. IPV4
3. Aloha 3. IPV6
4. CSMA Protocols 4. Subnetting
5. IEEE Standards 5. Supernetting
6. Standard Ethernet 6. Internetworking
7. Fast Ethernet
8. Gigabit Ethernet
9. IEEE 802.11

Connecting Devices
10. Repeaters
11. Hubs
12. Bridges
13. Switches
14. Routers
15. Gateways
 Data Link Layer: Two sublayers
• Data link layer divided into two functionality-oriented sublayers
• IEEE made this division for LANs
 MAC Sublayer
• Preamble: alerting the receiving system to the coming frame and
enabling it to synchronize its input timing
• CRC: CRC-32
 1. MAC Address
• Ethernet address in hexadecimal notation

• The least significant bit of the first byte defines the type of address.
If the bit is 0, the address is unicast; otherwise, it is multicast
• The broadcast destination address is a special case of the multicast
address in which all bits are 1s
2. Medium Access Protocols
 Random Access

• Each station has the right to the medium without being controlled by
any other station
• Collision, an access conflict, if more than one station tries to send
 3. ALOHA
• The earliest random access method developed at the Univ. of Hawaii in the
early 1970s
• Designed for a radio (wireless) LAN
• Pure ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA
• Frames in a pure ALOHA network
 Pure ALOHA Protocol: Procedure
• Binary exponential back-off algorithm
 Pure ALOHA Protocol
• Pure ALOHA vulnerable time = 2 x Tfr

• The throughput for pure ALOHA is S = G × e −2G .

• The maximum throughput Smax = 0.184 when G= (1/2).
 Slotted ALOHA
• Pure ALOHA vulnerable time = 2 x Tfr because there is no rule that defines
when the station can send
• Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve the efficiency of pure ALOHA
 Slotted ALOHA
• throughput for slotted ALOHA is S = G × e−G .
• The maximum throughput Smax = 0.368 when G = 1
• Slotted ALOHA vulnerable time = Tfr
 4. Carrier Sense Multiple Access (C-
• CSMA
SMA)
– “Sense before transmit”
– “Listen before talk”
• CSMA can reduce the possibility of collision, but it can not eliminate
it
 CSMA: Vulnerable Time
• Vulnerable time for CSMA is the propagation time Tp
needed for a signal to propagate from one end of the
medium to the other
 CSMA: Persistence Methods
• Behavior of 1-persistent, Nonpersistent, p-persistent method
 CSMA: Persistence Methods
• Flow diagram for 1-persistent, Nonpersistent, p-persistent method
 Persistence Strategy

• Nonpersistent strategy
– Reduces the chance of collision
– Reduces the efficiency of the network

• 1-persistent
– Increases the chance of collision

• p-persistent
– Reduces the chance of collision and improves the effi-
ciency by combining the other two strategies.
CSMA/CD (Collision Detection)
CSMA/CD: Flow Diagram
 CSMA/CD: Min. Frame Size
• Example: A network using CSMA/CD has a bandwidth of 10
Mbps. If the maximum propagation time (including the delays in
the devices and ignoring the time needed to send a jamming
signal, as we see later) is 25.6 μs, what is the minimum size of
the frame?

Solution
The frame transmission time is Tfr = 2 × Tp = 51.2 μs. This means,
in the worst case, a station needs to transmit for a period of 51.2 μs
to detect the collision. The minimum size of the frame is 10 Mbps ×
51.2 μs = 512 bits or 64 bytes. This is actually the minimum size of
the frame for Standard Ethernet.
 CSMA/CD: Energy Level & Throughput

• Energy level during transmission, idleness, or collision

• Throughput of CSMA/CD is greater than that of ALOHA

• The max. throughput occurs at a different value of G and is based on
the persistent method and the value of p in the p-persistent approach
• The max throughput is around 50% when G=1 for 1-persistent, up to
90% when G is between 3 and 8 for non-persistent
 CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance)
• Invented for wireless network where we cannot detect collisions
• Collision are avoided through the use of CSMA/CA’s three strategies:
the interframe space, the contention windows, and acknowledgement

• IFS can also be used to define the priority of a station or a frame

• If the station finds the channel busy, it does not restart the timer of the
contention window; it stops the timer and restarts it when the channel
becomes idle
CSMA/CA: Flow Diagram
 5. IEEE Standards
• In 1985, the Computer Society of the IEEE started a project, called
Project 802, to set standards to enable intercommunication among
equipment from a variety of manufacturers. Project 802 is a way of
specifying functions of the physical layer and the data link layer of
major LAN protocols.
 IEEE 802 Working Group
Active working groups Inactive or disbanded working groups
802.1 Higher Layer LAN Protocols Working 802.2 Logical Link Control Working Group
Group 802.4 Token Bus Working Group
802.3 Ethernet Working Group 802.5 Token Ring Working Group
802.11 Wireless LAN Working Group 802.7 Broadband Area Network Working
802.15 Wireless Personal Area Network Group
(WPAN) Working Group 802.8 Fiber Optic TAG
802.16 Broadband Wireless Access Working 802.9 Integrated Service LAN Working
Group Group
802.17 Resilient Packet Ring Working Group 802.10 Security Working Group
802.18 Radio Regulatory TAG 802.12 Demand Priority Working Group
802.19 Coexistence TAG 802.14 Cable Modem Working Group
802.20 Mobile Broadband Wireless Access
(MBWA) Working Group
802.21 Media Independent Handoff Working
Group
802.22 Wireless Regional Area Networks
 6. Standard Ethernet
• The original Ethernet was created in 1976 at Xerox’s Palo Alto
Research Center (PARC). Since then, it has gone through four
generations
 Ethernet
• Access method: 1-persistent CSMA/CD
• Slot time = rount-trip time + time required to send the jam sequence
– 512 bits for Ethernet, 51.2 μs for 10 Mbps Ethernet

• Slot time and collision

• Slot time and maximum network length

• MaxLength = PropagationSpeed x SlotTime/2
• MaxLength = (2 x 108) x (51.2 x 10-6/2) = 5120 m
• MaxLength = 2500 m 48 % of the theoretical calculation by
considering delay times in repeaters and interfaces, and the time
required to send the jam sequence
Physical Layer: Ethernet
10Base5: Thick Ethernet

10Base2: Thin Ethernet

10BaseT: Twisted-Pair Ethernet

10Base-F: Fiber Ethernet

Summary of Standard Ethernet
 Changes in the Standard
• Bridged Ethernet: Raising bandwidth and separating collision
domains
 Changes in the Standard
• Switched Ethernet: N-port bridge
 Changes in the Standard
• Full-duplex (switched) Ethernet: no need for CSMA/CD
 7. Fast Ethernet
• Under the name of IEEE 802.3u
• Upgrade the data rate to 100 Mbps
• Make it compatible with Standard Ethernet
• Keep the same 48-bit address and the same frame format
• Keep the same min. and max. frame length

• MAC Sublayer
• CSMA/CD for the half-duplex approach
• No need for CSMA/CD for full-duplex Fast Ethernet

• Autonegotiation: allow two devices to negotiate the mode or data rate

of operation
• Allows incompatible devices to connect to one another
• Allows one device to have multiple capabilities
• Allows a station to check a hub’s capabilities
 Fast Ethernet: Physical Layer
• Topology

• Implementation
Fast Ethernet: Encoding
Summary of Fast Ethernet
 8. Gigabit Ethernet
• Under the name of IEEE 802.3z
• Upgrade the data rate to 1 Gbps
• Make it compatible with Standard or Fast Ethernet
• Keep the same 48-bit address and the same frame format
• Keep the same min. and max. frame length
• Support autonegotiation as defined in Fast Ethernet
• MAC Sublayer
• Most of all implementations follows full-duplex approach
• In the full-duplex mode of Gigabit Ethernet, there is no collision;
the maximum length of the cable is determined by the signal
attenuation in the cable.
Half-duplex mode (very rare)
• Traditional: 0.512 μs (25m)
• Carrier Extension: 512 bytes (4096 bits) min. length
• Frame bursting to improve the inefficiency of carrier extension
 Gigabit Ethernet: Physical Layer
• Topology
 Gigabit Ethernet: Physical Layer
• Implementation
 Gigabit Ethernet: Physical Layer
• Encoding
Gigabit Ethernet: Summary
9. IEEE 802.11 (Wireless LAN)
IEEE 802.11 (Wireless LAN)
 IEEE 802.11 (Wireless LAN)
Architecture
Defines two kinds of services: basic service set (BSS) and
extended service set (ESS)
BSS
– The building block of a wireless LAN
– A BSS is made of stationary or mobile wireless stations and an optional
central base station, known as the access point (AP).

• BSS without an AP
– Stand-alone network
– Cannot send data to other BSSs
– Ad hoc architecture
• BSS with an AP
– Called an infrastructure network
BSS
 Extended Service Set (ESS)

• It is made up of two or more BSSs with APs.

• BSSs are connected through a distribution system, usually a wired LAN
• Station Types: No-transition, BSS-transition, and ESS-transition mobility
MAC Sublayer
• Two MAC sublayers: DCF and PCF
• DCF uses CSMA/CA as the access method
 CSMA/CA Flow Chart
DIFS: Distributed Inter Frame Space
SIFS: Short Inter Frame space
RTS: Request To Send
CTS: Clear To Send
 CSMA/CA and NAV

• When a station sends an RTS frame, it includes the duration of time that it needs
to occupy the channel. The stations that are affected by this transmission create
a timer called network allocation vector (NAV) that shows how much time must
pass before these stations are allowed to check the channel for idleness
• Collision During handshaking – no provision for detection, sender retries
PCF
• An optional access method that can be implemented in an AP
• A centralized, contention-free polling access method
• To give priority to PCF over DCF, another set of interframe spaces has been
defined: PIFS and SIFS
• PIFS (PCF IFS) is shorter than the DIFS  AP using PCF has priority
• Repetition interval starts with a special control frame, called a beacon frame
MAC Layer Frame Format
Frame types
• Three categories of frames
• Management frames for initial communication between stations
and APs
• Control frames for accessing the channel and acknowledging
frames

• Data frames are used for carrying data and control information
Addressing Mechanism
 Hidden Station Problems
• The CTS frame in CSMA/CA handshake can prevent collision from a
hidden station.
Exposed Station Problems
 Physical Layer

• Industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band which defines three unlicensed
bands in three ranges 902-928 MHz, 2.400-4.835 GHz, and 5.725-5.850 GHz
 Physical Layer
• IEEE 802.11 FHSS

• IEEE 802.11 DSSS

 Physical Layer
• IEEE 802.11 Infrared

• IEEE 802.11a OFDM

– Common data rates are 18 Mbps (PSK) and 54 Mbps (QAM)
• IEEE 802.11b DSSS
– High-rate direct sequence spread spectrum (HR-DSSS)
– Similar to DSSS method except for the encoding method called complementary
code keying (CCK), Four data rates; 1, 2, 5.5, 11 Mbps

• IEEE 802.11g
– Forward error correction and OFDM using 2.4 GHz ISM, 22- or 54-Mbps data rate
 Connecting devices can be categorized into five based on
layer in which they operate in a network

• Below the physical layer: Passive hub

• At the physical layer: Repeater or Active hub
• At the physical and data link layer : Bridges or two layer switch
• At the physical, data link and network layers : Router or three
layer switch
• At all the five layers : Gateways
 Five Categories of Connecting Devices

Below the physical layer: passive hub

At the physical layer: repeater or active hub
At the physical and data link layers: bridge or two-layer switch
At the physical, data link, network layers: router or three-layer switch
At all five layers: gateway
 1. Repeater
A repeater operates only in the physical layers
A repeater connects segments of a LAN
A repeater forwards every frame; it has no filtering capability
The repeater is a two-port device that extends the LANs’ physical length
 Function of a Repeater
A repeater is a regenerator, not an amplifier
 2. Active Hubs
An active hub is actually a multiport repeater
It is normally used to create connections between stations in a star topology
Hubs can also be used to create multiple levels of hierarchy; removing the
length limitation of 10Base-T (100m)
Repeaters/Hubs
 3. Bridges
A bridge operates in both physical and data link layers
A bridge has filtering capability: Having a table used in filtering decisions
A bridge can check, does not change the physical (MAC) addresses in a frame
 Bridges Connecting Different LANs
Many technical issues to connect LANs using different proto-
cols at the data link layer
Frame format
Maximum data size
Data rate
Bit order
Security
Multimedia support and QoS
 4. Two-Layer (Layer 2) Switch

Layer 2 switch is an N-port bridge

Ethernet switch or LAN switch
• Two-Layer Switch : bridge with many ports
– Filtering based on the MAC address of the frame it received
– Builds switching table by “learning” host addresses from source
addresses of incoming packets
– Unknown destination addresses are flooded out other ports
– Broadcast frames are flooded out other ports
 5. Three-Layer Switch
• Router

Three-layer device that routes packets based on their logical (network

layer) address.

Builds routing table by neighbor routers using routing protocols

Unknown IP packets are discarded

Broadcast frames are discarded

Three-Layer Switch : a router, but a faster and more sophisticated

Router and three-layer switch interchangeably
 6. Gateways
• A gateway is normally a computer that operates in all five layers of the
Internet or seven layers of OSI model.
• These connect two computers that use different connection oriented

transport protocols
Ex: Computer using connection oriented TCP/IP protocol needs to talk to a
computer using the connection oriented ATM transport Protocol
It can copy the packets from one connection to other, reformatting them as
need be. They understand the format and contents of the data and trans-
late messages from one format to another
Ex: An e-mail gateway could translate Internet messages into SMS for
mobile phones
 Network Layer
1. Logical Addressing
• These are necessary for universal communications that are
independent of underlying physical networks
• A logical address in the internet is currently a 32 bit address

Ex: 10.6.1.10
 2. IPV4
• Every host and router on the Internet has an IP address, which
encodes its network number and host number.
• No two machines on the Internet have the same IP address.
IPv4 Addresses
• An IPv4 address is 32 bits long.
• An IPv4 address uniquely and universally defines the connec-
tion of a device (for example, a computer or a router) to the In-
ternet.
• The address space of IPv4 is 232 or 4,294,967,296.
• There are two prevalent notations to show an IPv4 address:
binary notation and dotted-decimal notation.
Binary Notation
• In binary notation, the IPv4 address is displayed as 32 bits.
• Each octet is often referred to as a byte. So it is common to
hear an IPv4 address referred to as a 32-bit address or a 4-byte
address.
• The following is an example of an IPv4 address in binary nota-
tion:
01110101 10010101 00011101 00000010
Dotted-Decimal Notation
• To make the IPv4 address more compact and easier to read, In-
ternet addresses are usually written in decimal form with a
decimal point (dot) separating the bytes.
• The following is the dotted-decimal notation of the above ad-
dress:
117.149.29.2
1. Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary notation to
dotted-decimal notation.
a. 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111

2. Change the following IPv4 addresses from dotted-decimal nota-

tion to binary notation.
a. 111.56.45.78
b. 221.34.7.82

3. Find the error, if any, in the following IPv4 addresses.

a. 111.56.045.78
b. 221.34.7.8.20
c. 75.45.301.14
d. 11100010.23.14.67
1.Solution:
a. 129.11.11.239
b. 193.131.27.255

2.Solution:
a. 01101111 00111000 00101101 01001110
b. 11011101 00100010 00000111 01010010

3.Solution:
a. There must be no leading zero (045).
b. There can be no more than four numbers in an IPv4 address.
c. Each number needs to be less than or equal to 255 (301 is out-
side this range).
d. A mixture of binary notation and dotted-decimal notation is not
allowed.
IPv4 Protocol
 IPv4 Protocol
IP datagram:
• An IP datagram consists of a header part and a payload part.
• The header has a 20-byte fixed part and a variable-length op-
tional part.
• The header format is shown in Fig.
• It is transmitted in from left to right and top to bottom, with the
high-order bit of the Version field going first.
Version:
• The Version field keeps track of which version of the protocol
the datagram belongs to.
• By including the version at the start of each datagram, it be-
comes possible to have a transition between versions over a
long period of time.
IHL:
• Since the header length is not constant, a field in the header,
IHL, is provided to tell how long the header is, in 32-bit words.
• The minimum value is 5, which applies when no options are
present.
• The maximum value of this 4-bit field is 15, which limits the
header to 60 bytes, and thus the Options field to 40 bytes.
Type of Service:
• The Type of service field is one of the few fields that have
changed its meaning (slightly) over the years.
• Originally, the 6-bit field contained (from left to right) - a 3-bit
Precedence field and three flags: D, T, and R.
• The Precedence field was a priority, from 0 (normal) to 7 (net-
work control packet).
• The three flag bits allowed the host to specify what it cared
most about from the set {Delay, Throughput, Reliability}.
• In theory, these fields allow routers to make choices between, for
example, a satellite link with high throughput and high delay or a
leased line with low throughput and low delay.
• In practice, current routers often ignore the Type of service field
altogether.
• Six of the bits are used to indicate which of the service classes
each packet belongs to.
• The bottom 2 bits are used to carry explicit congestion notifica-
tion information
Total Length:
• The Total length includes everything in the datagram-both header
and data.
• The maximum length is 65,535 bytes.
Identification:
• The Identification field is needed to allow the destination host to
determine which datagram a newly arrived fragment belongs to.
• All the fragments of a datagram contain the same Identification value.
DF:
• DF stands for Don't Fragment.
• It is an order to the routers not to fragment the datagram because the
destination is incapable of putting the pieces back together again.
• By marking the datagram with the DF bit, the sender knows it will ar-
rive in one piece, even if this means that the datagram must avoid a
small-packet network on the best path and take a suboptimal route.
MF:
• MF stands for More Fragments. All fragments except the last one have
this bit set. It is needed to know when all fragments of a datagram
have arrived.
Fragment Offset:
• The Fragment offset tells where in the current packet this fragment be-
longs.
• All fragments except the last one in a datagram must be a multiple of 8
bytes, the elementary fragment unit.
• Since 13 bits are provided, there is a maximum of 8192 frag-
ments per datagram, supporting a maximum packet length up to
the limit of the Total length field.
• Working together, the Identification, MF, and Fragment offset
fields are used to implement fragmentation.
TTL:
• The TtL (Time to live) field is a counter used to limit packet life-
times.
• It was originally supposed to count time in seconds, allowing a
maximum lifetime of 255 sec.
• It must be decremented on each hop and is supposed to be
decremented multiple times when a packet is queued for a long
time in a router.
• In practice, it just counts hops.
• When it hits zero, the packet is discarded and a warning packet
is sent back to the source host.
• This feature prevents packets from wandering around forever.
Protocol:
• The Protocol field tells the network layer which transport pro-
cess to give the packet to.
• TCP is one possibility, but so are UDP and some others.
• The numbering of protocols is global across the entire Internet.
• Protocols and other assigned numbers were formerly listed in
RFC 1700, but nowadays they are contained in an online data-
base located at www.iana.org. (IANA – Internet Assigned Num-
bers Authority)
Header Checksum:
• Since the header carries vital information such as addresses, it
rates its own checksum for protection, the Header checksum.
• The algorithm is to add up all the 16-bit half-words of the
header as they arrive, using one’s complement arithmetic, and
then take the one’s complement of the result.
• Such a checksum is useful for detecting errors while the packet
travels through the network.
• Note that it must be recomputed at each hop because at least one
field always changes (the Time to live field), but tricks can be
used to speed up the computation.
Source address and Destination address:
• The Source address and Destination address indicate the IP ad-
dress of the source and destination network interfaces.
Options:
• The Options field was designed to provide an escape to allow
subsequent versions of the protocol to include information not
present in the original design, to permit experimenters to try out
new ideas, and to avoid allocating header bits to information that
is rarely needed.
• The options are of variable length.
Note

In classful addressing, the ad-

dress space is divided into five
classes: A, B, C, D, and E.
Finding the classes in binary and dotted-decimal nota-
tion
Number of blocks and block size in classful IPv4 address-
ing
 Default masks for classful addressing

In classful addressing, a large part of the available addresses

were wasted.
In IPv4 addressing, a block of addresses can be defined as
x.y.z.t /n in which x.y.z.t defines one of the addresses
and the /n defines the mask.
Netid and Hostid
• In classful addressing, an IP address in class A, B, or C is divided
into netid and hostid.
• These parts are of varying lengths, depending on the class of the
address.
• Figure shows some netid and hostid bytes. The netid is in color,
the hostid is in white.
• Note that the concept does not apply to classes D and E.
• In class A, 1 byte defines the netid and 3 bytes define the hostid.
• In class B, 2 bytes define the netid and 2 bytes define the hostid.
• In class C, 3 bytes define the netid and 1 byte defines the hostid.
4. Find the class of each address.
a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 14.23.120.8
d. 252.5.15.111
Solution:
a. The first bit is O. This is a class A address.
b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is O. This is a class C
address.
c. The first byte is 14 (between 0 and 127); the class is A.
d. The first byte is 252 (between 240 and 255); the class is
E.
 A network configuration for the block 205.16.37.32

The first address in a block is normally not as-

signed to any device; it is used as the network
address that represents the organization
to the rest of the world.
Addresses for private networks
 4. Subnetting
• During the era of classful addressing, subnetting was intro-
duced.
• Subnetting is a process of dividing a single large network in
multiple smaller networks.
• Subnetting increases the number of 1s in the mask.
 5. Supernetting
• The time came when most of the class A and class B addresses
were depleted; however, there was still a huge demand for mid-
size blocks.
• The size of a class C block with a maximum number of 256 ad-
dresses did not satisfy the needs of most organizations.
• One solution was supernetting.
• In supernetting, an organization can combine several class C
blocks to create a larger range of addresses.
• In other words, several networks are combined to create a super-
network or a supemet.
• An organization can apply for a set of class C blocks instead of
just one.
• Supernetting decreases the number of 1s in the mask.
• For example, if an organization is given four class C addresses,
the mask changes from /24 to /22.
Address Depletion
• The flaws in classful addressing scheme combined with the
fast growth of the Internet led to the depletion of the available
addresses.
• We have run out of class A and B addresses, and a class C
block is too small for most midsize organizations.
• Hence, Classful addressing, which is almost obsolete, is re-
placed with classless addressing.
 3. IPV6
Note

An IPv6 address is 128 bits long.

IPv6 address in binary and hexadecimal colon notation

Abbreviated IPv6 addresses
 Example

Expand the address 0:15::1:12:1213 to its original.

Solution
We first need to align the left side of the double colon to
the left of the original pattern and the right side of the
double colon to the right of the original pattern to find
how many 0s we need to replace the double colon.

This means that the original address

is.
Table Type prefixes for IPv6 ad-
dresses
Table Type prefixes for IPv6 addresses
Figure IPv6 datagram header and payload
Figure Format of an IPv6 datagram
Table 20.6 Next header codes for
IPv6
 Table 20.7 Priorities for congestion-controlled traf-
fic

20.108
IPV6 Addresses
Unicast, Multicast and Anycast network
 6. Internetworking
• In practice, many different networks exist, including PANs, LANs, MANs,
and WANs. (like Ethernet, Internet over cable, the fixed and mobile tele-
phone networks, 802.11, 802.16 and more)
Different Networks and Protocols:
• Having different networks invariably means having different protocols.
• We believe that a variety of different networks (and thus protocols) will al-
ways be around, for the following reasons.
I. First of all, the installed base of different networks is large.
II. Nearly all personal computers run TCP/IP.
III. Many large businesses have mainframes running IBM's SNA (Systems
Network Architecture).
IV. A substantial number of telephone companies operate ATM (Asyn-
chronous Transfer Mode) networks.
V. Some personal computer LANs still use Novell NCP/IPX (NetWare
Core Protocol/ Internetwork Packet Exchange) or AppleTalk.
VI. Finally, wireless is an up-and-coming area with a variety of protocols.
• In the future, it may be commonplace for the telephone, the
television set, and other appliances all to be networked to-
gether so that they can be controlled remotely.
•  This new technology will undoubtedly bring new networks
and new protocols.
• Bob Metcalfe postulated that the value of a network with N
nodes is the number of connections that may be made between
the nodes, or N2. This means that large networks are much
more valuable than small networks because they allow many
more connections, so there always will be an incentive to
combine smaller networks.
• As an example of how different networks might be connected,
consider the example of Fig.
• Here we see a corporate network with multiple locations tied
together by a wide area ATM network.
 A collection of interconnected networks.

A collection of interconnected networks

•  At one of the locations, an FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data In-
terface) optical backbone is used to connect an Ethernet, an
802.11 wireless LAN, and the corporate data center's SNA
mainframe network.
• The purpose of interconnecting all these networks is to allow
users on any of them to communicate with users on all the
other ones and also to allow users on any of them to access
data on any of them.
• Accomplishing this goal means sending packets from one
network to another.
• Two styles of internetworking are possible: a connection-ori-
ented concatenation of virtual-circuit subnets, and a data-
gram internet style.
The End