Logic and Critical Thinking

Course code: PHIL 1011

Chapter FOUR
 Chapter Four: Basic concepts of Critical
Thinking

4.1. Meaning of Critical Thinking

 Critical means involves skilled judgment or
observation.
 In this sense, critical thinking means thinking
clearly and intelligently.
 Critical thinking can be defined as a wide range
of cognitive skills and intellectual dispositions
needed to effectively identify, analyze, and
evaluate arguments.
• John Dewey: American philosopher has defined critical
thinking as an active, persistent, and careful consideration of
a belief or a form of knowledge in the light of the grounds, or
supporting evidences.
• In this definition, there are three main points that we should
focus on: active, persistent and grounds(supportive evidence).
• An ‘active’ process: receive ideas and information from other
people.
• Richard Paul: Critical thinking as a mode of thinking about
any subject, content or problem – in which the thinker
improves the quality of his or her thinking
• Critical thinking is sometimes referred to as ‘critico-creative’
thinking. This word is the combination of two words: critical
and creative.
 Standards of Critical Thinking
• Critical thinking is a disciplined thinking governed by clear
intellectual standards.
• To identify a critical thinking from the uncritical, we refer to
some standards.
• Some of the most important intellectual standards are
clarity, precision, accuracy, relevance, consistency,
logical correctness, completeness, and fairness.
1. Clarity: refers to clear understanding of concepts and
clearly expressing them in a language that is free of
vagueness.
2. Precision: Precision is a matter of being exact, accurate
and careful. Most ideas are vague and obscures though we
think we have precise understanding of them.
3. Accuracy:
• Accuracy is about correct information. Critical thinking
should care a lot about genuine information.
• Not wrong information.
• False information result in distorting realities.
4. Relevance: The question of relevance is a question of
connections. When there is a discussion or debate, it
should focus on relevant ideas and information. That is,
only those points that bear on the issue should be
raised.
5. Consistency
• It is easy to see why consistency is essential to critical
thinking.
• Consistency is about the quality of always behaving in the
same ways or standards.
• There are two kinds of inconsistency that should be
avoided.
• Logical inconsistency: involves saying or believing
inconsistent things (i.e., things that cannot both or all
be true) about a particular matter.
• practical inconsistency: It involves saying one thing
and doing another.
6. Logical Correctness: To think logically is to reason
correctly; that is, to draw well-founded conclusions from the
beliefs held. To think critically, we need accurate and well
supported beliefs. But, just as important, we need to be able
to reason from those beliefs to conclusions that logically
follow from them. Unfortunately, illogical thinking is all too
common in human affairs.
7. Completeness: it refers to deep and complete
thinking not shallow and superficial thinking.
8. Fairness
Critical thinking demands that our thinking be fair - that is,
open minded, impartial, and free of distorting biases and
preconceptions.
Principles of Good Argument
1. The Structural Principle
 The structural principle of a good argument requires that one who
argues for or against a position should use an argument that meets the
fundamental structural requirements of a well-formed argument.
 Such an argument does not use reasons that contradict each other, that
contradict the conclusion, or that explicitly or implicitly assume the
truth of the conclusion. Neither does it draw any invalid deductive
inferences.
 The first criterion used in determining whether an argument is a good
one is the requirement that it be structurally sound. An argument must
look and works like an argument.
 In other words, it should be formed in such a way that the conclusion
either follows necessarily from its premises, in the case of deductive
arguments, or follows probably from its premises, in the case of
inductive arguments.
Another structural feature of an argument that could render it fatally
flawed would be one whose premises are incompatible with one
another.
2. The Relevance Principle
The premises of a good argument must be relevant to the truth or
merit of the conclusion.
3. The Acceptability Principle
• The third principle of a good argument is the acceptability
principle.
• This principle requires that one who presents an argument for or
against a position should provide reasons that are likely to be
accepted by a mature, rational person and that meet standard
criteria of acceptability.
• The reasons set forth in support of a conclusion must be
acceptable.
4. The Sufficiency Principle
• the one who presents an argument for or against a
position should attempt to provide relevant and
acceptable reasons of the right kind
• sufficient in number and weight to justify the
acceptance of the conclusion.
5. The Rebuttal Principle
The quality of providing concomitant defense to the
opponents idea.
 Principles of Critical Thinking
1. The Fallibility Principle
• a discussion should be willing to accept the fact that he or she is
fallible.
• one must acknowledge that one’s own initial view may not be the
most defensible position on the question.
2. The Truth Seeking Principle
• It is the truth seeking principle.
• This principle requires that each participant should be committed to
the task of searching for the truth or at least the most defensible
position on the issue at stake.
• Therefore, one should be willing to examine alternative positions
seriously, look for insights in the positions of others, and allow other
participants to present arguments for or raise objections to any
position held on an issue.
3. The Clarity Principle
• It should be free of any kind of linguistic confusion and clearly
separated from other positions and issues.
4. The Burden of Proof Principle
This principle requires that the burden of proof for any position
usually rests on the participant who sets forth the position.
5. The Principle of Charity
This is the fifth principle of a critical thinking that requires that if a
participant’s argument is reformulated by an opponent, it should be
carefully expressed in its strongest possible version that is consistent
with what is believed to be the original intention of the arguer.
6. The Suspension of Judgment Principle
• This principle requires that if no position is defended by a good
argument, or if two or more positions seem to.
7. The Resolution Principle
• The last principle of a critical thinking is the resolution principle.
• This principle requires that an issue should be considered resolved.
Characteristics of Critical Thinking
• Basic Traits of Critical Thinkers
 A critical thinker simply is a person who exhibit some feature of critical thinking.
 There are some dispositions and attitudes, skills and abilities, habits and values
that every critical person should manifest.
Critical thinkers:
 Are honest with themselves, acknowledging what they don't know, recognizing their
limitations, and being watchful of their own errors.
 Strive for understanding, keep curiosity alive, remain patient with complexity, and are
ready to invest time to overcome confusion.
 Base judgments on evidence rather than personal preferences, deferring judgment
whenever evidence is insufficient. They revise judgments when new evidence reveals
error.
 Are interested in other people's ideas and so are willing to read and listen attentively,
even when they tend to disagree with the other person.
 Recognize that extreme views (whether conservative or liberal) are seldom correct, so
they avoid them, practice fair-mindedness, and seek a balance view.
 Practice restraint, controlling their feelings rather than being controlled by them, and
thinking before acting.
 Basic Traits of Uncritical Thinkers
Uncritical thinkers:
• Pretend they know more than they do, ignore their limitations,
and assume their views are error-free.
• Regard problems and controversial issues as nuisances or threats
to their ego.
• Are inpatient with complexity and thus would rather remain
confused than make the effort to understand.
• Base judgments on first impressions and gut reactions. They are
unconcerned about the amount or quality of evidence and cling
to their views steadfastly.
• Are preoccupied with themselves and their own opinions, and so
are unwilling to pay attention to others' views. At the first sign of
disagreement, they tend to think, "How can I refute this?"
 Ignore the need for balance and give preference to views
that support their established views.
 Tend to follow their feelings a
Let us now compare and contrasts the key intellectual traits of critical
thinkers with the relevant traits of uncritical thinkers:
First, critical thinkers have a passionate drive for clarity,
precision, accuracy, and other critical thinking standards
while uncritical thinkers often think in ways that are unclear,
imprecise, and inaccurate. In addition to this, critical thinkers
are sensitive to ways in which critical thinking can be skewed
by egocentrism, sociocentrism, wishful thinking, and other
impediments, while uncritical thinkers often fall prey to
egocentrism, sociocentrism, relativistic thinking,
unwarranted assumptions, and wishful thinking.
Second, critical thinkers are skilled at understanding, analyzing,
and evaluating arguments and viewpoints whereas uncritical
thinkers often misunderstand or evaluate unfairly arguments and
viewpoints. Moreover, critical thinkers reason logically, draw
appropriate conclusions from evidence and data, while uncritical
thinkers are illogical, and draw unsupported conclusions from
these sources.
Third, critical thinkers are intellectually honest with themselves,
acknowledging what they do not know and recognizing their
limitations while uncritical thinkers pretend they know more than
they do and ignore their limitations. Furthermore, critical thinkers
listen open-mindedly to opposing points of view, welcome
criticisms of beliefs and assumptions, whereas uncritical thinkers
are closed-minded, and resist criticisms of beliefs and
assumptions.
Fourth, critical thinkers base their beliefs on facts and evidence rather
than on personal preferences or self-interests, while uncritical thinkers
often base beliefs on mere personal preferences or self-interests.
Again, critical thinkers are aware of the biases and preconceptions that
shape the way they perceive the world, whereas uncritical thinkers
lack awareness of their own biases and preconceptions.
Fifth, critical thinkers think independently and are not afraid to
disagree with group opinion whereas uncritical thinkers tend to
engage in “groupthink” uncritically following the beliefs and values of
the crowd. Moreover, critical thinkers have the intellectual courage to
face and assess nd act impulsively.
Finally yet importantly, critical thinkers pursue truth, are curious about a wide
range of issues and have the intellectual perseverance to pursue insights or
truths despite obstacles or difficulties whereas uncritical thinkers are often
relatively indifferent to truth and lack curiosity, tend not to persevere when they
encounter intellectual obstacles or difficulties.
Barriers to Critical Thinking
One of the most powerful barriers to critical thinking is
egocentrism. Even highly educated and intelligent people are prey
to egocentrism. Egocentrism is the tendency to see reality as
centered on oneself. Egocentrics are selfish, self-absorbed people
who view their interests, ideas, and values as superior to
everyone else’s.
All of us are affected to some degree by egocentric biases.
Egocentrism can manifest itself in a variety of ways. Two common
forms this are self-interested thinking and the superiority bias.
Self-interested thinking is the tendency to accept and defend
beliefs that harmonize with one’s self-interest. Almost no one is
immune to self-interested thinking. There are a number of facts,
which supported this idea.
Sociocentrism
The second powerful barrier that paralyze the critical
thinking ability of most people including intellectuals is
sociocentrism. It is group-centered thinking. Just as
egocentrism can hinder rational thinking by focusing
excessively on the self, so sociocentrism can hinder rational
thinking by focusing excessively on the group.
Sociocentrism can distort critical thinking in many ways.
Two of the most important are group bias and conformism.
Group bias is the tendency to see one’s own group (nation,
tribe, sect, peer group, and the like) as being inherently
better than others. Most people absorb group bias
unconsciously, usually from early childhood.
Conformism refers to our tendency to follow the crowd - that is, to
conform (often unthinkingly) to authority or to group standards of
conduct and belief. The desire to belong, to be part of the in-group, can
be among the most powerful of human motivations. This desire can
seriously cripple our powers of critical reasoning and decision-making.
3. Unwarranted Assumptions and Stereotypes
The third factor that impedes critical thinking is unwarranted
assumptions and stereotype. An assumption is something we take for
granted - something we believe to be true without any proof or
conclusive evidence. Almost everything we think and do is based on
assumptions. If the weather report calls for rain, we take an umbrella
because we assume that the meteorologist is not lying, that the report is
based on a scientific analysis of weather patterns, that the instruments
are accurate, and so forth. There may be no proof that any of this is true,
but we realize that it is wiser to take the umbrella than to insist that the
weather bureau provide exhaustive evidence to justify its prediction.
Relativistic Thinking
One of the strongest challenges to critical thinking is
relativistic thinking. Relativism is the view that truth is a
matter of opinion. There are two popular forms of
relativism: subjectivism and cultural relativism.
Subjectivism is the view that truth is a matter of
individual opinion.
Subjectivism is the view that truth is a matter of
individual opinion. According to subjectivism, whatever
an individual believes is true, is true for that person, and
there is no such thing as “objective” or “absolute” truth,
i.e., truth that exists independent of what anyone believes.
For example, suppose Abdella believes that abortion is wrong and
Obang believes that abortion is not always wrong. According to
subjectivism, abortion is always wrong for Abdella and not always
wrong for Obang. Both beliefs are true – for them. And truth for one
individual or another is the only kind of truth there is.
The other common form of relativism is cultural relativism. This is
the view that truth is a matter of social or cultural opinion. In other
words, cultural relativism is the view that what is true for person A is
what person A’s culture or society believes is true. Drinking wine, for
example, is widely considered to be wrong in Iran but is not generally
considered to be wrong in France. According to cultural relativism,
therefore, drinking wine is immoral in Iran but is morally permissible
in France. Thus, for the cultural relativist, just as for the subjectivist,
there is no objective or absolute standard of truth. What is true is
whatever most people in a society or culture believe to be true.
For example:
• suppose Abdella believes that abortion is wrong and Obang believes that abortion
is not always wrong.
• According to subjectivism, abortion is always wrong for Abdella and not always
wrong for Obang.
• Both beliefs are true – for them. And truth for one individual or another is the only
kind of truth there is.
• The other common form of relativism is cultural relativism. This is the view that
truth is a matter of social or cultural opinion.
• In other words, cultural relativism is the view that what is true for person A is
what person A’s culture or society believes is true.
• Drinking wine, for example, is widely considered to be wrong in Iran but is not
generally considered to be wrong in France.
• According to cultural relativism, therefore, drinking wine is immoral in Iran but is
morally permissible in France.
• Thus, for the cultural relativist, just as for the subjectivist, there is no objective or
absolute standard of truth. What is true is whatever most people in a society or
culture believe to be true.
 Benefits of Critical Thinking
Critical Thinking: Skills and Dispositions
Critical thinking teaches you how to raise and identify
fundamental questions and problems in the community.
It will teach you to reformulate these problems clearly
and precisely.
It will teach you how to gather and assess relevant
information, develop reasoned conclusions and solutions,
testing them against relevant criterion and standards.
It teaches you how to be open minded to alternative
system of thought, recognize and assess your own
assumptions, implications
Critical thinking is what university is all about. University is not
only about teaching students with facts. It’s about teaching
students to think- think critically.
Critical Thinking in the Classroom
When they first enter university, students are sometimes surprised to
discover that university education seem less interested in how beliefs
are acquired than they are in whether those beliefs can withstand
critical scrutiny. The question is not much about what you know, but
how you acquire what you know and whether your ideas stands
critical examination.
In university, the focus is on higher-order thinking: the active,
intelligent evaluation of ideas and information. For this reason critical
thinking plays a vital role in universities. In a critical thinking chapter,
students learn a variety of skills that can greatly improve their
classroom performance. These skills include:
 Understanding the arguments and beliefs of others
 Critically evaluating those arguments and beliefs
 Developing and defending one’s own well-supported
arguments and beliefs
 First, critical thinking can help us avoid making foolish
personal decisions.
 Second, critical thinking plays a vital role in promoting
democratic processes.
 Third, critical thinking is worth studying for its own
sake, simply for the personal enrichment it can
bring to our lives. One of the most basic truths of
the human condition is that most people, most of
the time, believe what they are told.