Research Methodology

• Meaning
• Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge.
• One can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information
on a specific topic.
• Dictionary definition of research is a careful investigation or enquiry
• Specially through search for new facts in a branch of knowledge.
• According to Clifford Woody, research comprises defining and redefining problems ,
formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions, collecting organising and evaluating data ,
making deductions and reaching conclusions and at last carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
• Ref : Research Methodology by C R Kothari , Gaurav Garg
•
• Characteristics of Research
• Keeping this in mind that research in any field of inquiry is undertaken to provide
information to support decision-making in its respective area, we summarize some
desirable characteristics of research:
• The research should focus on priority problems.
• The research should be systematic. It emphasizes that a researcher should employ a
structured procedure.
• The research should be logical. Without manipulating ideas logically, the scientific
researcher cannot make much progress in any investigation.
• The research should be reductive. This means that the findings of one researcher should be
made available to other researchers to prevent them from repeating the same research.
• https://www.iedunote.com/research-definition-characteristics-goals-approaches
• The research should be replicable. This asserts that there should be scope to
confirm the findings of previous research in a new environment and
different settings with a new group of subjects or at a different point in time.
• The research should be generative. This is one of the valuable characteristics
of research because answering one question leads to generating many other
new questions.
• The research should be action-oriented. In other words, it should be aimed
at reaching a solution leading to the implementation of its findings.
• The research should follow an integrated multidisciplinary approach, i.e.,
research approaches from more than one discipline are needed.
• The research should be participatory, involving all parties concerned
(from policymakers down to community members) at all stages of the
study.
• The research must be relatively simple, timely, and time-bound,
employing a comparatively simple design.
• The research must be as much cost-effective as possible.
• The results of the research should be presented in formats most
useful for administrators, decision-makers, business managers, or the
community members.
• The characteristics of research include various points such as:-
• 1. Research should be controlled-
• It should be controlled because of the relation between two or more variables are affected by each other
(whether it is internal or external). If the research is not controllable, then it will not be able to design a
particular research report.
• 2. Research should be rigorous-
• It should be rigorous because it helps to follow the procedures to find out the answers related questions which
are relevant and appropriate in nature. The research information consists of two types of sciences such as
physical and social sciences. These two sciences are also varied from each other.
• 3. Research should be systematic-
• Research should be systematic because if a researcher wants to do a perfect research design or process then it
will have to evaluate or obtained the necessary information from the market in a systematic manner. It takes
various steps to do a perfect or systematic research process and all the steps of procedures are interlinked to
each other.

• https://subjectquery.com/what-is-research/
• research process and all the steps of procedures are interlinked to each other.
• 4. Research should be valid-
• It means the information which is collected by the researcher can be the correct and verifiable by
yourself (i.e,  researcher himself). If our collected information is fair or valid, then our research will also
be ethical in nature.
• 5. Research should be empirical-
• This means that any conclusion drawn is totally based upon ethical or hard evidence gathered
information collected from observations and real-life experiences.
• 6. The foundation of knowledge-
• Research is the foundation of knowledge for the purpose of knowledge and an important source for
providing guidelines or norms for solving different social, business, or governmental problems. It is a
variety of formal training which enables us to understand the new developments in one’s field in an
efficient way.
• https://subjectquery.com/what-is-research
• 6 Reasons for conducting research
• It encourages a love of learning that extends beyond classrooms.
• The importance of research can be visible if we see it as the only means of proving theories.
• Through research, we can gather updated information and to-the-point data.
• By differentiating between valuable and vague data, it creates credibility.
• Proper research of products and markets will make your business succeed.
• Research facilitates learning process
• Let us dig deep to understand how research makes our life better.
• 1- Encourages learning beyond the classroom
• The first thing which makes research important is the fact that it encourages learning. Research makes
it necessary for us to keep learning. The concept of learning beyond the boundaries of
school/college/university was instead a new thing. We can say that just because of research, the
human mind and their lifestyle have changed. The mere fact that mental development is just because
we cannot deny the importance research has for developing our mindsets.
• https://aofirs.org/articles/six-reasons-why-research-is-important
• It is used to prove theories
• Just like our brain development needs research, theoretical proofs need research, too. To
understand the importance of research, we should realize that our life revolves around
theories, and if we remove research from the equation, we can see that our lives are nothing
but a mess. Moreover, we research a point of view where we do not have to keep things to
ourselves, and instead, we do it to inform humankind about what change our theory might
bring. The primary purpose of all the research has kept us connected. 
•  Provides the latest information
• Knowledge is one of the core reasons human beings have desired since the start of the
human race. Being more knowledgeable powerful has made us addicted to the latter. And this
is true as well. The countries with the most knowledge base are the ones that have shown
development. However, there can be other reasons for doing research. With the help of tools
and certifications like CIRS, we can get these skills very fast and with the lowest efforts.
Anyone can become a researcher who will be certified and recognized by the AOFIRS. An
opportunity of a lifetime.
• https://aofirs.org/articles/six-reasons-why-research-is-important
• Research builds credibility
• Research provides a strong basis for you to construct your thoughts and beliefs on. You may talk
confidently about something you know to be correct. When you've done your homework, it's far more
difficult for someone to find flaws in what you're saying. Your study should concentrate on the most
reliable sources. Your research should be focused on the best sources. If your “research” consists of
opinions from non-experts, you won’t be very credible. When your research is good, though, people
are more likely to pay attention.
• Helps succeed in business
• A business, like any other technical work, demands a lot of energy. A successful business cannot be
done without solid proves and case studies. That being said, it makes research the foremost step
before doing any business. The percentage of companies turning unsuccessful without proper research
involved is near 90%. So, it is always better to do appropriate research in every way before jumping
into any business. Businesses prosper because they had sensible owners who researched their
product, and the market needs before launching it. Only if we pay attention to these nit-picks of a
company and see the importance of research decision-making will there be a higher chance to find,
gauge, and seize opportunities. 
• https://aofirs.org/articles/six-reasons-why-research-is-important
• Facilitates Learning Process
• Learning new things and implementing them in daily life can be a
frustrating task. Learning is not made for just anyone and everyone;
however, the short courses and certifications like CIRS keep the
research process somewhat more manageable. The accreditation
offers complete knowledge from beginner to expert level. You can
become a Certified Online Researcher and land a high-paying job
besides being far more efficient and skills in gathering reliable data.
No wonder research is a daunting task, but with the help of tools and
tricks, you can become a certified researcher very soon.
• https://aofirs.org/articles/six-reasons-why-research-is-important
 Types of Research
• The basic types of Research are as follows :
• 1. Descriptive vs Analytical
• 2. Applied vs Fundamental
• 3. Quantitative vs Qualitative
• 4. Conceptual vs Empirical
• 5. Some other types of Research

• 1. Descriptive vs Analytical
• Descriptive research include surveys and fact finding enquiries of different kinds . The major purpose of this
research is description of state of affairs as it exists at present .

•In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive research
studies .
•
• The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables , he can only report
what has happened or what is happening .

• Ref : Research Methodology by C R Kothari , Gaurav Garg

•
• In Analytical research , on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or
information already available and analyse these to make a critical
evaluation of the material .
2. Applied vs Fundamental
Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing
a society or an industrial or business organisation , whereas fundamental
research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with formulation of a
theory.
Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed fundamental research.
Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure
mathematics are examples of fundamental research.
Ref : Research Methodology by C R Kothari , Gaurav Garg
• 3. Quantitative vs Qualitative
• Quantitative research is based on the quantitative measurements of
some characteristics .
• It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of
quantities.
• Qualitative research , on the other hand, is concerned with
qualitative phenomenon i.e. phenomena relating to or involving
quality or kind.
• Motivation research is an important type of Qualitative research.
• Ref : Research Methodology by C R Kothari , Gaurav Garg
• 4. Conceptual vs Empirical
• Conceptual research is that related to some abstract ideas or theory.
• It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret
existing ones.
• On the other hand, Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone , often
without due regard for system and theory.
• It is data based research , coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified
by observation or experiment.
• Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other
variables in some way.
•
• Ref : Research Methodology by C R Kothari , Gaurav Garg
• 5. Some other types of Research
• a. From the point of view time , we can think of research either as one time research
or longitudinal research.
• b. Field setting research or laboratory research or simulation research , depending
upon the environment in which it is to be carried out.
• c. Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research . Such research
follow case study methods or indepth approaches to reach the basic causal relations.
• d. The research may be exploratory or it may be formalised. The objective of
exploratory research is the development of hypothesis rather than their testing ,
whereas formalised research studies are those with substantial structure and with
specific hypothesis to be tested.
• Ref : Research Methodology by C R Kothari , Gaurav Garg
• e. Historical research is that which utilises historical sources like
documents, remains etc.
• f. Research can also be classified as conclusion oriented or decision –
oriented research. While doing a Conclusion oriented research , a
researcher is free to pick up a problem , redesign the enquiry as he
proceeds and is prepared to conceptualise as he likes. Decision oriented
research is always for the need of decision maker and the researcher in this
case is not free to embark upon research according to his own inclination.
• Operation research is an example of decision oriented research.
• Ref : Research Methodology by C R Kothari , Gaurav Garg
 Research Process
• Research Process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research.
• Research process consists of a number of closely related activities.
• But such activities overlap continuously rather than following a strictly prescribed sequence.
• The following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guideline
regarding the research process.
• 1. Formulating the research problem
• 2. Extensive literature survey
• 3. Development of working hypotheses
• 4.Preparing the research design.
5. Determining sample design
Ref : Research Methodology by C R Kothari , Gaurav Garg
• - Deliberate sampling
• - Simple Radom sampling
• - Systematic sampling
• - Stratified sampling
• - Quota sampling
• - Cluster sampling and Area sampling
• - Multi - stage sampling
• - Sequential sampling
• 6. Collection of Data.
• - By Observation
• - Personal interview
• - Through telephone interviews
• -By mailing questionnaires
• - Through schedules
Ref : Research Methodology by C R Kothari , Gaurav Garg
• 7. Execution of the project
• 8. Analysis of Data
• 9. Hypothesis testing
• 10. Generalisations and interpretation
• 11. Preparation of the Report or the Thesis
•
• 1. Formulating the research problem
• There are two types of research problems viz , those which relate to states of nature and those
which relate to relationship between variables. At the very outset ,the researcher must single out the
problem he wants to study. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem –
• - Understanding the problem thoroughly
• - Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
•The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with those
having some expertise in the matter.

Ref : Research Methodology by C R Kothari , Gaurav Garg

•
• 2. Extensive literature survey
• Once the problem is formulated , a brief summary of it should be written down .
• At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey
connected with the problem. For this purpose , the abstracting and indexing journals
and published and un-published bibliographies are first place to go.
• 3. Development of working hypotheses
• Researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses.
Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test it’s
logical or empirical consequences. They also affect the manner in which tests must be
conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required
for the analysis.
• Ref : Research Methodology by C R Kothari , Gaurav Garg
• 4. Preparing the research design.
• Researcher will be required to prepare a research design. He will have to state the conceptual structure
within which research should be conducted.
• Preparation of such design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information.
Research purposes may be grouped in four categories :
• - Exploration
• - Description
• - Diagnosis
• - Experimentation
• The suitable design will be one that minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the data collected
and analysed. A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many different
aspects of a problem is considered appropriate if purpose of the research study is that of exploration. But
when the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situation or an association between
variables , the suitable design will be one that minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the data
collected and analysed.
•
//
• The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as ‘sample design’. A
sample design is a definite plan determined before any data is actually collected for obtaining a sample from a
given population. Thus a plan to select 12 of a city’s 200 drug stores in a certain way constitutes a sample
design. With probability samples , each has a known probability of being included in the sample but the non-
probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability.

• 6. Collection of Data.
• In dealing with any real life problem , it is often found that the data at hand is inadequate and hence it become
necessary to collect data that is appropriate.
• There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of cost , time, and
other resources at the disposal of researcher.
• Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. The researcher should select one
of the methods of collecting the data taking into consideration the nature of investigation, objective, scope of
inquiry, financial resources, available time.
• 7. Execution of the project
• If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines , the data to be collected would be adequate and
dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner or in time.
• Ref : Research Methodology by C R Kothari , Gaurav Garg
• 8. Analysis of Data
• The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of
categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding , tabulation and then
drawing statistical inferences. Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the
computation of various percentages, coefficients etc.
• 9. Hypothesis testing
• After analysing data, the researcher is in a position to test the hypothesis, if any, he had
formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypothesis or they happen to be contrary ? This is
the usual question which should be answered while testing hypothesis.
• 10. Generalisations and interpretation
• If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several several times, it may be possible for the researcher
to arrive at generalisation i.e. to build at theory. If the researcher had no
• Ref : Research Methodology by C R Kothari , Gaurav Garg
• hypothesis to start with , he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as
interpretation.

• 11. Preparation of the Report or the Thesis

• Finally , the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must
be done with great care.
• a. The layout of the report should be as follows
• - -the preliminary pages
• - the main text
• - the end matter.
• b. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language.
• c. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information more
clearly and forcibly.
• d. Various constraints experienced in conducting research operations may as well be stated .

•
 Research Problem
• A Research Problem refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of either
a theoretical or practical situation. And wants to obtain a solution for the same.
• We can state the components of a research problem.
• 1. There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem
• 2.There must be some objective(s) to be attained at If one wants nothing , one can not have a
problem.
• 3. There must be an alternative means or courses of action for obtaining the objectives one wishes
to attain. This means that there must be at least two means available to a researcher for if he has no
choice of means , he can not have a problem.
• 4. There must be some doubt in the minds of researcher with regard to the selection of alternatives.
• 5. There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.
• Thus, a research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for the
given problem. i.e. to find out by which course of action the objective can be attained optimally in
the context of a given environment.
• Ref : Research Methodology by C R Kothari , Gaurav Garg
 Necessity of Defining The Problem
• Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This
statement signifies the need for defining a research problem. The problem to be
investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help to discriminate the
relevant data from the irrelevant ones.
• A proper definition of research problem will enable researcher to be on the
track ,where as an ill defined problem may create hurdles.
• Questions like – what data is to be collected ? What characteristics of data are
relevant and need to be studied ? What relations are to be explored ? What
techniques are to be used for the purpose? Similar other questions crop up in the
mind of researcher who can well plan his strategy and find answers to all such
questions.
• Ref : Research Methodology by C R Kothari , Gaurav Garg
 Technique Involved In Defining A Problem
• Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a research
study and must in no case be accomplished hurriedly. The research problem
should be defined in a systematic manner.
• The following steps generally followed one after the other.
• 1. Statement of the problem in a general way.
• 2. Understanding the nature of the problem.
• 3. Surveying the available literature .
• 4. Developing the idea through discussions .
• 5. Rephrasing the research problem.
• Ref : Research Methodology by C R Kothari , Gaurav Garg
• 1. Statement of the problem in a general way.
• First of all the problem should be stated in a broad general way , keeping in view either some
practical concern or some scientific interest. For this purpose ,the researcher must immerse himself
thoroughly in the subject matter concerning which he wishes to pose a problem.
• In case of social research , it is considered advisable to do some field observation and as such the
researcher may undertake some sort of preliminary survey or what is often called Pilot Survey .
2. Understanding the nature of the problem
The next step in defining the problem is to understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way of
understanding the problem is to discuss it with those who first raised it in order to find out how the
problem originally came about and with what objectives in view. For a better understanding of the
nature of the problem , he can enter in to discussion with those who have a good knowledge of the
problem.
3. Surveying the available literature : All available literature concerning the problem at hand
must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research problem is given. This
means that the researcher must be well conversant with relevant theories in the field, reports,
records as also all other relevant literature. He must devote sufficient time in reviewing of research
• 4. Developing the idea through discussions
• Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful information. Various new ideas can
be developed through such an exercise. Hence , a researcher must discuss his problem with
his colleagues and others who have enough experience in the same area . This is quite often
known as experience survey .
• 5. Rephrasing the research problem.
• Finally , the researcher must sit to rephrase the research problem in to working proposition.
Once the problem has been clearly understood , the environment has been defined ,
discussion over the problem have place , available literature have been surveyed, rephrasing
the problem in to analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task.
• Ref : Research Methodology by C R Kothari , Gaurav Garg
•
• Importance of Research Problem
•
•The formulation of a research problem is the first and the most important step of research
process.
A Research Problem helps one formulate that sequence .
Research problem also helps one avoid unnecessary steps during the research.

A research problem helps you understand the research procedure in a better

manner. A clear statement that defines all objectives can help one keep his study

relevant. This also helps researchers evaluating the questions that his research

project answers and different methods that the researcher use to address them .
•
• A research problem is the preliminary step in conducting a research study. A research
problem helps you understand the research procedure in a better manner. Most beginners
in research think that a research problem is easy to formulate but in reality it is not so. A
research problem needs great thought on the part of the researcher in order to formulate a
scientific research problem. A scientific research problem is one that can be solved using
scientific procedures.
• In actual the purpose of the research problem is to determine the objective and intention
of  the research, in the absence of an aim or objective you cannot determine the research
methodology. A research problem can help you identify each and every step of the research
process: the study design, sampling strategy, research instrument and research analysis.
• The research problem should have great clarity since the research process in itself
generates more questions. In the absence of a clear and well defined research problem the
researcher can become confused. In addition the research question or research problem
should have to be interesting so that the researcher become well engaged in the research.
The passion of the researcher in conducting the research matters a lot in the research.
• http://readingcraze.com/index.php/importance-formulating-research-problem/
• The research problem should have to be manageable within your
resources, otherwise it will become difficult for you to undertake it.
You should know about the time, energy and money that you have in
order to design a manageable research.
• http://readingcraze.com/index.php/importance-formulating-research-
problem
Research Design
• Research Design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted . It constitutes the
blue print for collection, measurement and analysis of data.
• As such the design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis
and its operational implications to the final analysis of data.
• The design decisions happens to be in respect of :
• - What is the study about ?
• - Why is the study being made ?
• - Where will the study be carried out ?
• - What type of data is required ?
• -Where can the required data can be found ?
• -What periods of study will the study include ?
• - What will be the sample design ?
• - What techniques of data collection will be used ?
• - How will the data be analysed ?
• Keeping in view the above stated design decisions, one may split the overall research design into
the following parts:
• a) The Sampling Design- which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the
given study.
• b) The Observational Design –which relates to the conditions under which the observations are
to be made
• c) The Statistical Design- which concern the questions of how many items are to be observed
and how the information and data gathered is to be analysed .
• d) The operational Design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified in
the sampling , statistical and observational designs can be carried out .

• Ref : Research Methodology by C R Kothari , Gaurav Garg

•
• Features of Research Design
• We can state the important features of a research design as under :
• 1. It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research problem .
• 2. It is a strategy that specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analysing data .
• 3. It also includes time and cost budgets since the most studies are done under these two
constraints.
• A good research design is often characterised by adjectives like flexible, efficient , economical and so
on . Generally , the design which minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the data collected
and analysed is considered a good design. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is
supposed to be the best design in many investigation. Similarly , a design which yields maximal
information and provides an opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is
considered most appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research problems. Thus, the
question of a good design is related to the purpose or objective of the research problem and also
with the nature of the problem to be studied.

• Ref : Research Methodology by C R Kothari , Gaurav Garg